A lightweight, object-oriented state machine implementation in Python.
pip install transitions
...or clone the repo from GitHub and then:
python setup.py install
They say a good example is worth 100 pages of API documentation, a million directives, or a thousand words. Well, "they" probably lie... but here's an example anyway:
from transitions import Machine
import random
class NarcolepticSuperhero(object):
# Define some states. Most of the time, narcoleptic superheroes are just like
# everyone else. Except for...
states = ['asleep', 'hanging out', 'hungry', 'sweaty', 'saving the world']
def __init__(self, name):
# No anonymous superheroes on my watch! Every narcoleptic superhero gets
# a name. Any name at all. SleepyMan. SlumberGirl. You get the idea.
self.name = name
# What have we accomplished today?
self.kittens_rescued = 0
# Initialize the state machine
self.machine = Machine(model=self, states=NarcolepticSuperhero.states, initial='asleep')
# add some transitions. We could also define these using a static list of
# dictionaries, as we did with states above, and then pass the list to
# the Machine initializer as the transitions= argument.
# At some point, every superhero must rise and shine.
self.machine.add_transition('wake_up', 'asleep', 'hanging out')
# Superheroes need to keep in shape.
self.machine.add_transition(trigger='work_out', source='hanging out', dest='hungry')
# Those calories won't replenish themselves!
self.machine.add_transition('eat', 'hungry', 'hanging out')
# Superheroes are always on call. ALWAYS. But they're not always
# dressed in work-appropriate clothing.
self.machine.add_transition('distress_call', '*', 'saving the world',
before='change_into_super_secret_costume')
# When they get off work, they're all sweaty and disgusting. But before
# they do anything else, they have to meticulously log their latest
# escapades. Because the legal department says so.
self.machine.add_transition('complete_mission', 'saving the world', 'sweaty',
after='update_journal')
# Sweat is a disorder that can be remedied with water.
# Unless you've had a particularly long day, in which case... bed time!
self.machine.add_transition('clean_up', 'sweaty', 'asleep', conditions=['is_exhausted'])
self.machine.add_transition('clean_up', 'sweaty', 'hanging out')
# Our NarcolepticSuperhero can fall asleep at pretty much any time.
self.machine.add_transition('nap', '*', 'asleep')
def update_journal(self):
""" Dear Diary, today I saved Mr. Whiskers. Again. """
self.kittens_rescued += 1
def is_exhausted(self):
""" Basically a coin toss. """
return random.random() < 0.5
def change_into_super_secret_costume(self):
print "Beauty, eh?"There, now we've baked a state machine into our NarcolepticSuperhero. Let's take him/her/it out for a spin...
>>> batman = NarcolepticSuperhero("Batman")
>>> batman.state
'asleep'
>>> batman.wake_up()
>>> batman.state
'hanging out'
>>> batman.nap()
>>> batman.state
'asleep'
>>> batman.clean_up()
MachineError: "Can't trigger event clean_up from state asleep!"
>>> batman.wake_up()
>>> batman.work_out()
>>> batman.state
'hungry'
# Batman still hasn't done anything useful...
>>> batman.kittens_rescued
0
# We now take you live to the scene of a horrific kitten entreement...
>>> batman.distress_call()
'Beauty, eh?'
>>> batman.state
'saving the world'
# Back to the crib.
>>> batman.complete_mission()
>>> batman.state
'sweaty'
>>> batman.clean_up()
>>> batman.state
'asleep' # Too tired to shower!
# Another productive day, Alfred.
>>> batman.kittens_rescued
1Getting our state machine up and running is pretty simple. Let's say we have an object called lump--an instance of class Matter--whose states we want to manage:
class Matter(object):
pass
lump = Matter()We can initialize a minimal working state machine bound to lump like so:
from transitions import Machine
machine = Machine(model=lump, states=['solid', 'liquid', 'gas', 'plasma'], initial='solid')
# Lump now has state!
lump.state
>>> 'solid'I say "minimal", because while this state machine is technically operational, it doesn't actually do anything. It'll start its life in the 'solid' state, but won't ever move into any other state, because we haven't defined any transitions yet. So let's try again.
# The states
states=['solid', 'liquid', 'gas', 'plasma']
# And some transitions between states. We're lazy, so we'll leave out
# the inverse phase transitions (freezing, condensation, etc.).
transitions = [
{ 'trigger': 'melt', 'source': 'solid', 'dest': 'liquid' },
{ 'trigger': 'evaporate', 'source': 'liquid', 'dest': 'gas' },
{ 'trigger': 'sublimate', 'source': 'solid', 'dest': 'gas' },
{ 'trigger': 'ionize', 'source': 'gas', 'dest': 'plasma' }
]
# Initialize
machine = Machine(lump, states=states, transitions=transitions, initial='liquid')
# Now lump maintains state...
lump.state
>>> 'liquid'
# And that state can change...
lump.evaporate()
lump.state
>>> 'gas'
lump.ionize()
lump.state
>>> 'plasma'Notice the shiny new methods attached to our Matter instance (evaporate(), ionize(), etc.), each of which triggers the corresponding transition. We don't have to explicitly define these methods anywhere; the name of each transition is bound to the model we passed to the Machine initializer (in this case, lump).
The soul of any good state machine (and of many bad ones, no doubt) is a set of states. Above, we defined the valid model states by giving the Machine initializer a list of strings. But internally, states are actually represented as State objects. You can initialize and modify States in a number of ways. Specifically, you can (a) pass a string to the Machine initializer giving the name(s) of the state(s); (b) directly initialize each new State object; or (c) pass a dictionary that contains initialization arguments. The following snippets illustrate several ways to achieve the same goal:
# Create a list of 3 states to pass to the Machine
# initializer. We can mix types; in this case, we
# pass one State, one string, and one dict.
states = [
State(name='solid'),
'liquid',
{ 'name': 'gas'}
]
machine = Machine(lump, states)
# This alternative example illustrates more explicit
# addition of states and state callbacks, but the net
# result is identical to the above.
machine = Machine(lump)
solid = State('solid')
liquid = State('liquid')
gas = State('gas')
machine.add_states([solid, liquid, gas])A State can also be associated with a list of enter and exit callbacks, which will be triggered whenever the state machine enters or leaves that state. Callbacks can be specified during initialization or added later. For convenience, whenever a new State is added to a Machine, dynamic on_enter_{state name} and on_exit_{state name} methods are created.
# Our old Matter class, now with a couple of new methods we
# can trigger when entering or exit states.
class Matter(object):
def say_hello(self): print "hello, new state!"
def say_goodbye(self): print "goodbye, old state!"
lump = Matter()
# Same states as above, but now we give StateA an exit callback
states = [
State(name='solid', on_exit=['say_goodbye']),
'liquid',
{ 'name': 'gas' }
]
machine = Machine(lump, states=states)
machine.add_transition('sublimate', 'solid', 'gas')
# Callbacks can also be added after initialization using
# the dynamically added on_enter_ and on_exist_ methods.
lump.on_enter_StateC('say_hello')
# Test out the callbacks...
lump.set_state('solid')
lump.sublimate()
>>> 'goodbye, old state!'
>>> 'hello, new state!'In addition to passing in callbacks when initializing a State, or adding them dynamically, it's also possible to define callbacks in the model class itself, which may increase code clarity. For example:
class Matter(object):
def say_hello(self): print "hello, new state!"
def say_goodbye(self): print "goodbye, old state!"
def on_enter_A(self): print "We've just entered state A!"
lump = Matter()
machine = Machine(lump, states=['A', 'B', 'C'])Now, any time we transition to state A, the on_enter_A() method defined in the Matter class will fire.
We can always check the current state of the model by inspecting the .state attribute. We can also check whether the model is in a specific state using is_{state name}(). Lastly, if we want to retrieve the actual State object for the current state, we can do that through the Machine instance's get_state() method.
lump.state
>>> 'solid'
lump.is_gas()
>>> False
lump.is_solid()
>>> True
machine.get_state().name
>>> 'solid'Some of the above examples already illustrate the use of transitions in passing, but here we'll explore them in more detail. As with states, each transition is represented internally as its own object--an instance of class Transition. The quickest way to initialize a set of transitions is to pass a dictionary, or list of dictionaries, to the Machine initializer. We already saw this above:
transitions = [
{ 'trigger': 'melt', 'source': 'solid', 'dest': 'liquid' },
{ 'trigger': 'evaporate', 'source': 'liquid', 'dest': 'gas' },
{ 'trigger': 'sublimate', 'source': 'solid', 'dest': 'gas' },
{ 'trigger': 'ionize', 'source': 'gas', 'dest': 'plasma' }
]
machine = Machine(model=Matter(), states=states, transitions=transitions)Defining transitions in dictionaries has the benefit of clarity, but can be cumbersome. If we're after brevity, we can choose to define our transitions using lists. We just need to make sure that the elements in each list are in the same order as positional arguments in the Transition initialization (i.e., trigger, source, destination, etc.). The following list-of-lists specification is functionally equivalent to the list-of-dictionaries approach above:
transitions = [
['melt', 'solid', 'liquid'],
['evaporate', 'liquid', 'gas'],
['sublimate', 'solid', 'gas'],
['ionize', 'gas', 'plasma']
]Alternatively, we can add transitions to a Machine after initialization:
machine = Machine(model=lump, states=states, initial='solid')
machine.add_transition('melt', source='solid', dest='liquid')The trigger argument defines the name of the new triggering method that gets attached to the base model. When this method is called, it will try to execute the transition:
>>> lump.melt()
>>> lump.state
'liquid'By default, calling an invalid trigger will raise an exception:
>>> lump.to_gas()
>>> # This won't work because only objects in a solid state can melt
>>> lump.melt()
transitions.core.MachineError: "Can't trigger event melt from state gas!"In general, this behavior is desirable, as it can help alert you to problems in your code. But in some cases, you might want to silently ignore invalid triggers. You can do this by setting ignore_invalid_triggers=True on either a state-by-state basis, or globally for all states:
>>> # Globally suppress invalid trigger exceptions
>>> m = Machine(lump, states, initial='solid', ignore_invalid_triggers=True)
>>> # ...or suppress for only one group of states
>>> states = ['new_state1', 'new_state2']
>>> m.add_states(states, ignore_invalid_triggers=True)
>>> # ...or even just for a single state. Here, exceptions will only be suppressed when the current state is A.
>>> states = [State('A', ignore_invalid_triggers=True), 'B', 'C']
>>> m = Machine(lump, states)In addition to any transitions added explicitly, a to_{state}() method will be added automatically whenever a state is added to a Machine instance. This method transitions to the target state no matter what state the state machine is currently in:
lump.to_liquid()
lump.state
>>> 'liquid'
lump.to_solid()
lump.state
>>> 'solid'This behavior can be disabled if desired by setting auto_transitions=False in the Machine initializer.
A given trigger can be attached to multiple transitions, some of which can potentially begin or end in the same state. For example:
machine.add_transition('transmogrify', ['solid','liquid', 'gas'], 'plasma')
machine.add_transition('transmogrify', 'plasma', 'solid')
# This next transition will never execute
machine.add_transition('transmogrify', 'plasma', 'gas')In this case, calling transmogrify() will set the model's state to solid if it's currently plasma, and set it to plasma otherwise. Note that only the first matching transition will execute--hence, the transition defined in the last line above won't do anything.
We can also indicate that a trigger should cause a transition from all states to a particular destination by using the wildcard:
machine.add_transition('to_liquid', '*', 'liquid')In many cases, we want our state transitions to follow a strict linear sequence. For instance, given states ['A', 'B', 'C'], we might want valid transitions for A --> B, B --> C, and C --> A (but no other pairs). To facilitate this behavior, Transitions provides an add_ordered_transitions() method in the Machine class:
states = ['A', 'B', 'C']
# See the "alternative initialization" section for an explanation of the 1st argument to init
machine = Machine(None, states, initial='A')
machine.add_ordered_transitions()
machine.next_state()
print(machine.state)
>>> 'B'
# We can also define a different order of transitions
machine = Machine(None, states, initial='A')
machine.add_ordered_transitions(['A', 'C', 'B'])
machine.next_state()
print(machine.state)
>>> 'C'Sometimes we only want a particular transition to execute if some specific condition obtains. We can ensure that happens by passing a method or list of methods in the conditions argument:
# Our Matter class, now with a bunch of methods that return booleans.
class Matter(object):
def is_flammable(self): return False
def is_really_hot(self): return True
machine.add_transition('heat', 'solid', 'gas', conditions='is_flammable')
machine.add_transition('heat', 'solid', 'liquid', conditions=['is_really_hot'])In the above example, calling heat() when the model is in state 'solid' will transition to state 'gas' if is_flammable returns True. Otherwise, it will transition to state 'liquid' if is_really_hot returns True.
For convenience, there's also an 'unless' argument that behaves exactly like conditions, but inverted:
machine.add_transition('heat', 'solid', 'gas', unless=['is_flammable', 'is_really_hot'])In this case, the model would transition from solid to gas whenever heat() fires, provided that both is_flammable() and is_really_hot() return False.
Note that condition-checking methods will passively receive optional arguments and/or data objects passed to triggering methods. For instance, the following call:
lump.heat(temp=74)...would pass the temp=74 optional kwarg to the is_flammable() check (possibly wrapped in an EventData instance). For more on this, see the Passing data section below.
As with states, we can attach callbacks to transitions. Every transition has 'before' and 'after' attributes that contain a list of methods to call before and after the transition executes:
class Matter(object):
def make_hissing_noises(self): print "HISSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS"
def disappear: print "where'd all the liquid go?"
transitions = [
{ 'trigger': 'melt', 'source': 'solid', 'dest': 'liquid', 'before': 'make_hissing_noises'},
{ 'trigger': 'evaporate', 'source': 'liquid', 'dest': 'gas', 'after': 'disappear' }
]
lump = Matter()
machine = Machine(lump, states, transitions=transitions, initial='solid')
lump.melt()
>>> "HISSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS"
lump.evaporate()
>>> "where'd all the liquid go?"Sometimes you need to pass the callback functions registered at machine initialization some data that reflects the model's current state. Transitions allows you to do this in two different ways. First (and by default), you can pass any positional or keyword arguments you like directly to the trigger methods added when transitions were registered:
class Matter(object):
def __init__(self): self.set_environment()
def set_environment(self, temp=0, pressure=101.325):
self.temp = temp
self.pressure = pressure
def print_temperature(self): print("Current temperature is %d degrees celsius." % self.temp)
def print_pressure(self): print("Current pressure is %.2f kPa." % self.pressure)
lump = Matter()
machine = Machine(lump, ['solid', 'liquid'], initial='solid')
machine.add_transition('melt', 'solid', 'liquid', before='set_environment')
lump.melt(45) # positional arg
lump.print_temperature()
> 'Current temperature is 45 degrees celsius.'
machine.set_state('solid') # reset state so we can melt again
lump.melt(pressure=300.23) # keyword args also work
lump.print_pressure()
> 'Current pressure is 300.23 kPa.'You can pass any number of arguments you like to the trigger.
There is one important limitation to this approach: every callback function triggered by the state transition must be able to handle all of the arguments. This may cause problems if you have multiple callbacks that each expects somewhat different data. To get around this, Transitions supports an alternate method for sending data. If you set send_event=True at Machine initialization, all arguments to the triggers will be wrapped in an EventData instance and passed on to every callback. (The EventData object also maintains internal references to the source state, model, machine, and trigger associated with the transition, in case you need to access these for anything.)
class Matter(object):
def __init__(self):
self.temp = 0
self.pressure = 101.325
# Note that the sole argument is now the EventData instance.
# This object stores positional arguments passed to the trigger method in the
# .args property, and stores keywords arguments in the .kwargs dictionary.
def set_environment(self, event):
self.temp = event.kwargs.get('temp', 0)
self.pressure = event.kwargs.get('pressure', 101.325)
def print_pressure(self): print("Current pressure is %.2f kPa." % self.pressure)
lump = Matter()
machine = Machine(lump, ['solid', 'liquid'], send_event=True, initial='solid')
machine.add_transition('melt', 'solid', 'liquid', before='set_environment')
lump.melt(temp=45, pressure=1853.68) # keyword args
lump.print_pressure()
> 'Current pressure is 1853.68 kPa.'In all of the examples so far, we've attached a new Machine instance to a separate model--specifically, to lump (an instance of class Matter). While this separation keeps things tidy--because we don't have to monkey patch a whole bunch of new methods into our Matter class--it can also get annoying, since it requires us to keep track of which methods get called on our state machine, and which ones get called on the model the state machine is bound to (e.g., lump.on_enter_StateA() vs. machine.add_transition()). Fortunately, Transitions is flexible, and supports two other initialization patterns. First, we can create a standalone state machine that doesn't require another model at all. All we have to do is omit the model argument during initialization:
machine = Machine(states=states, transitions=transitions, initial='solid')
machine.melt()
machine.state
>>> 'liquid'If we initialize our machine this way, we will then attach all triggering events (like evaporate(), sublimate(), etc.) and all callback functions directly to the Machine instance. This approach has the benefit of consolidating all of our state machine functionality in one place, but can feel a little bit unnatural if you think state logic should be contained within the model itself rather than in a separate controller.
An alternative and potentially better approach is to have the model inherit from the Machine class. Transitions is designed to support inheritance seamlessly. Just be sure to override class Machine's init method:
class Matter(Machine):
def say_hello(self): print "hello, new state!"
def say_goodbye(self): print "goodbye, old state!"
def __init__(self):
states = ['solid', 'liquid', 'gas']
Machine.__init__(self, states, initial='solid')
self.add_transition('melt', 'solid', 'liquid')
lump = Matter()
lump.state
>>> 'solid'
lump.melt()
lump.state
>>> 'liquid'Here we get to consolidate all state machine functionality in our existing model, which is often a more natural way to think about things than sticking all of the functionality we want in a separate standalone Machine instance.
Transitions includes very rudimentary logging capabilities. A number of events--namely, state changes, transition triggers, and conditional checks--are logged as INFO-level events using the standard Python logging module. This means that logging to standard output can be easily configured in one's script:
# Set up logging
import logging
from transitions import logger
logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
# Business as usual
machine = Machine(states=states, transitions=transitions, initial='solid')
...For bug reports and other issues, please open an issue on GitHub. For any other questions, solicitations, or large unrestricted monetary gifts, email Tal Yarkoni.