diff --git a/.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template/action.yml b/.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template/action.yml
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..19c60d80779
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template/action.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+name: 'setup cache for template'
+description: 'setup cache for template'
+inputs:
+  arch:
+    description: arch to setup cache for
+    required: false
+  template:
+    description: template yaml file
+    required: true
+runs:
+  using: "composite"
+  steps:
+  - name: "detect platform for download directory"
+    id: detect-platform
+    run: |
+      if [[ "$(uname)" == "Darwin" ]]; then
+        download_dir=~/Library/Caches/lima/download
+      else
+        download_dir=~/.cache/lima/download
+      fi
+      echo "download-dir=$download_dir" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
+    shell: bash
+  - name: "create cache parameters from template"
+    if: always()
+    id: cache-params-from-template
+    run: |
+      set -eux
+      source hack/cache-common-inc.sh
+      print_cache_informations_from_template "${{ inputs.template }}" "${{ inputs.arch }}" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
+    shell: bash
+
+  - name: "Cache ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.image-path }}"
+    if: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.image-key != '' }}
+    # avoid using `~` in path that will be expanded to platform specific home directory
+    uses: actions/cache@v4
+    with:
+      path: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.image-path }}
+      key: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.image-key }}
+      enableCrossOsArchive: true
+
+  - name: "Cache ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.kernel-path }}"
+    if: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.kernel-key != '' }}
+    # avoid using `~` in path that will be expanded to platform specific home directory
+    uses: actions/cache@v4
+    with:
+      path: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.kernel-path }}
+      key: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.kernel-key }}
+      enableCrossOsArchive: true
+
+  - name: "Cache ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.initrd-path }}"
+    if: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.initrd-key != '' }}
+    # avoid using `~` in path that will be expanded to platform specific home directory
+    uses: actions/cache@v4
+    with:
+      path: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.initrd-path }}
+      key: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.initrd-key }}
+      enableCrossOsArchive: true
+
+  - name: "Cache ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.containerd-key }}"
+    if: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.containerd-key != '' }}
+    uses: actions/cache@v4
+    with:
+      path: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.containerd-path }}
+      key: ${{ steps.cache-params-from-template.outputs.containerd-key }}
+      enableCrossOsArchive: true
+
+  - name: "Create symbolic link named ${{ steps.detect-platform.outputs.download-dir }} pointing to .download"
+    run: |
+      set -eux
+      [ -d .download ] || mkdir -p .download
+      path_to_cache=${{ steps.detect-platform.outputs.download-dir }}
+      mkdir -p "$(dirname "$path_to_cache")"
+      ln -sfn "$PWD/.download" "$path_to_cache"
+    shell: bash
diff --git a/.github/workflows/test.yml b/.github/workflows/test.yml
index 533ba8dabd1..f503fd79f10 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/test.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/test.yml
@@ -158,12 +158,6 @@ jobs:
     - uses: actions/setup-go@v5
       with:
         go-version: 1.23.x
-    - name: Cache ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-      uses: actions/cache@v4
-      with:
-        path: ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-        # hashFiles do not seem to support symlinks
-        key: ${{ runner.os }}-${{ hashFiles('templates/default.yaml') }}
     - name: Unit tests
       run: go test -v ./...
     - name: Make
@@ -183,11 +177,15 @@ jobs:
         # GitHub runners seem to have lima installed by brew already; we don't want/need it
         time brew uninstall --ignore-dependencies lima colima
         time brew install qemu bash coreutils curl jq
-    - name: "Show cache"
-      run: ./hack/debug-cache.sh
     - name: "Inject `no_timer_check` to kernel cmdline"
       # workaround to https://github.com/lima-vm/lima/issues/84
       run: ./hack/inject-cmdline-to-template.sh templates/default.yaml no_timer_check
+    - name: Cache image used by default.yaml
+      uses: ./.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template
+      with:
+        template: templates/default.yaml
+    - name: "Show cache"
+      run: ./hack/debug-cache.sh
     - name: "Test default.yaml"
       uses: nick-invision/retry@v3
       with:
@@ -231,19 +229,14 @@ jobs:
     - uses: actions/setup-go@v5
       with:
         go-version: 1.23.x
-    - id: path_for_hashFiles
-      # It seems that `hashFiles` cannot use `..` as a path component, so generate a normalized path here.
-      run: echo "NORMALIZED=$(realpath --relative-to=$PWD examples/${{ matrix.template }})" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
-    - uses: actions/cache@v4
-      with:
-        path: ~/.cache/lima/download
-        # hashFiles do not seem to support symlinks
-        # TODO: more fine-grained cache
-        key: ${{ runner.os }}-${{ hashFiles(steps.path_for_hashFiles.outputs.NORMALIZED) }}
     - name: Make
       run: make
     - name: Install
       run: sudo make install
+    - name: Cache image used by templates/${{ matrix.template }}
+      uses: ./.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template
+      with:
+        template: templates/${{ matrix.template }}
     - name: Install test dependencies
       run: |
         sudo apt-get update
@@ -332,16 +325,17 @@ jobs:
     - uses: actions/setup-go@v5
       with:
         go-version: 1.23.x
-    - name: Cache ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-      uses: actions/cache@v4
-      with:
-        path: ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-        # hashFiles do not seem to support symlinks
-        key: ${{ runner.os }}-${{ hashFiles('examples/vmnet.yaml') }}
     - name: Make
       run: make
     - name: Install
       run: make install
+    - name: "Inject `no_timer_check` to kernel cmdline"
+      # workaround to https://github.com/lima-vm/lima/issues/84
+      run: ./hack/inject-cmdline-to-template.sh templates/vmnet.yaml no_timer_check
+    - name: Cache image used by vmnet.yaml
+      uses: ./.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template
+      with:
+        template: templates/vmnet.yaml
     - name: Install test dependencies
       run: brew install qemu bash coreutils iperf3
     - name: Install socket_vmnet
@@ -360,9 +354,6 @@ jobs:
     - name: Unit test (pkg/networks) with socket_vmnet
       # Set -count=1 to disable cache
       run: go test -v -count=1 ./pkg/networks/...
-    - name: "Inject `no_timer_check` to kernel cmdline"
-      # workaround to https://github.com/lima-vm/lima/issues/84
-      run: ./hack/inject-cmdline-to-template.sh templates/vmnet.yaml no_timer_check
     - name: Test socket_vmnet
       uses: nick-invision/retry@v3
       with:
@@ -387,11 +378,10 @@ jobs:
     - uses: actions/setup-go@v5
       with:
         go-version: 1.23.x
-    - name: Cache ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-      uses: actions/cache@v4
+    - name: Cache image used by ${{ matrix.oldver }}/examples/ubuntu-lts.yaml
+      uses: ./.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template
       with:
-        path: ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-        key: ${{ runner.os }}-upgrade-${{ matrix.oldver }}
+        template: https://raw.githubusercontent.com/lima-vm/lima/${{ matrix.oldver }}/examples/ubuntu-lts.yaml
     - name: Install test dependencies
       run: brew install qemu bash coreutils
     - name: Test
@@ -422,19 +412,14 @@ jobs:
     - uses: actions/setup-go@v5
       with:
         go-version: 1.23.x
-    - id: path_for_hashFiles
-      # It seems that `hashFiles` cannot use `..` as a path component, so generate a normalized path here.
-      run: echo "NORMALIZED=$(realpath examples/${{ matrix.template }})" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"
-    - name: Cache ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-      uses: actions/cache@v4
-      with:
-        path: ~/Library/Caches/lima/download
-        # hashFiles do not seem to support symlinks
-        key: ${{ runner.os }}-${{ hashFiles(steps.path_for_hashFiles.outputs.NORMALIZED) }}
     - name: Make
       run: make
     - name: Install
       run: make install
+    - name: Cache image used by templates/${{ matrix.template }}
+      uses: ./.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template
+      with:
+        template: templates/${{ matrix.template }}
     - name: Install test dependencies
       run: brew install bash coreutils jq
     - name: Uninstall qemu
diff --git a/hack/cache-common-inc.sh b/hack/cache-common-inc.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..f5bfbfc9796
--- /dev/null
+++ b/hack/cache-common-inc.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,323 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ download_template_if_needed templates/default.yaml
+# templates/default.yaml
+# $ download_template_if_needed https://raw.githubusercontent.com/lima-vm/lima/v0.15.1/examples/ubuntu-lts.yaml
+# /tmp/tmp.1J9Q6Q/template.yaml
+# ```
+function download_template_if_needed() {
+	local template="$1"
+	case "${template}" in
+	https://*)
+		tmp_yaml=$(mktemp -d)/template.yaml
+		curl -sSLf "${template}" >"${tmp_yaml}" || return
+		echo "${tmp_yaml}"
+		;;
+	*)
+		test -f "${template}" || return
+		echo "${template}"
+		;;
+	esac
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_image_locations_for_arch_from_template templates/default.yaml
+# https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a
+# https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img null
+# ```
+function print_image_locations_for_arch_from_template() {
+	local template arch
+	template=$(download_template_if_needed "$1") || return
+	local -r template=${template}
+	arch=$(detect_arch "${template}" "${2:-}") || return
+	local -r arch=${arch}
+
+	# extract digest, location and size by parsing template using arch
+	local -r yq_filter="[.images | map(select(.arch == \"${arch}\")) | .[].location] | .[]"
+	yq eval "${yq_filter}" "${template}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ detect_arch templates/default.yaml
+# x86_64
+# $ detect_arch templates/default.yaml arm64
+# aarch64
+# ```
+function detect_arch() {
+	local template arch
+	template=$(download_template_if_needed "$1") || return
+	local -r template=${template}
+
+	arch="${2:-$(yq '.arch // ""' "${template}")}"
+	arch="${arch:-$(uname -m)}"
+	# normalize arch. amd64 -> x86_64, arm64 -> aarch64
+	case "${arch}" in
+	amd64 | x86_64) arch=x86_64 ;;
+	aarch64 | arm64) arch=aarch64 ;;
+	*) ;;
+	esac
+	echo "${arch}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_image_locations_for_arch_from_template templates/default.yaml|print_valid_image_index
+# 0
+# ```
+function print_valid_image_index() {
+	local index=0
+	while read -r location; do
+		[[ ${location} != "null" ]] || continue
+		http_code_and_size=$(check_location_with_cache "${location}")
+		read -r http_code _size <<<"${http_code_and_size}"
+		if [[ ${http_code} -eq 200 ]]; then
+			echo "${index}"
+			return
+		fi
+		index=$((index + 1))
+	done
+	echo "Failed to get the valid image location" >&2
+	return 1
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ size_from_location "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240725/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-amd64.img"
+# 585498624
+# ```
+function size_from_location() {
+	(
+		set -o pipefail
+		local location=$1
+		check_location "${location}" | cut -d' ' -f2
+	)
+}
+
+# Check the remote location and return the http code and size.
+# If GITHUB_ACTIONS is true, the result is not cached.
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ check_location "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240725/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-amd64.img"
+# 200 585498624
+# ```
+function check_location() {
+	# shellcheck disable=SC2154
+	if [[ ${GITHUB_ACTIONS:-false} == true ]]; then
+		check_location_without_cache "$1"
+	else
+		check_location_with_cache "$1"
+	fi
+}
+
+# Check the remote location and return the http code and size.
+# The result is cached in .check_location-response-cache.yaml
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ check_location_with_cache "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240725/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-amd64.img"
+# 200 585498624
+# ```
+function check_location_with_cache() {
+	local -r location="$1" cache_file=".check_location-response-cache.yaml"
+	# check ${cache_file} for the cache
+	if [[ -f ${cache_file} ]]; then
+		cached=$(yq -e eval ".[\"${location}\"]" "${cache_file}" 2>/dev/null) && echo "${cached}" && return
+	else
+		touch "${cache_file}"
+	fi
+	http_code_and_size=$(check_location_without_cache "${location}") || return
+	yq eval ".[\"${location}\"] = \"${http_code_and_size}\"" -i "${cache_file}" || return
+	echo "${http_code_and_size}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ check_location "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240725/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-amd64.img"
+# 200 585498624
+# ```
+function check_location_without_cache() {
+	local -r location="$1"
+	curl -sIL -w "%{http_code} %header{Content-Length}" "${location}" -o /dev/null
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_image_kernel_initrd_locations_with_digest_for_arch_from_template_at_index templates/default.yaml 0
+# https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img
+# sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a
+# null
+# null
+# null
+# null
+# ```
+function print_image_kernel_initrd_locations_with_digest_for_arch_from_template_at_index() {
+	local template index="${2:-}" arch
+	template=$(download_template_if_needed "$1") || return
+	local -r template=${template}
+	arch=$(detect_arch "${template}" "${3:-}") || return
+	local -r arch=${arch}
+
+	local -r yq_filter="[(.images[] | select(.arch == \"${arch}\"))].[${index}]|[
+		.location,
+		.digest,
+		.kernel.location,
+		.kernel.digest,
+		.initrd.location,
+		.initrd.digest
+	]"
+	yq -o=t eval "${yq_filter}" "${template}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_containerd_config_for_arch_from_template templates/default.yaml
+# true
+# https://github.com/containerd/nerdctl/releases/download/v1.7.6/nerdctl-full-1.7.6-linux-arm64.tar.gz
+# sha256:77c747f09853ee3d229d77e8de0dd3c85622537d82be57433dc1fca4493bab95
+# ```
+function print_containerd_config_for_arch_from_template() {
+	local template arch
+	template=$(download_template_if_needed "$1") || return
+	local -r template=${template}
+	arch=$(detect_arch "${template}" "${2:-}") || return
+	local -r arch=${arch}
+
+	local -r yq_filter="
+		[.containerd|[.system or .user],
+		.containerd.archives | map(select(.arch == \"${arch}\")) | [.[0].location, .[0].digest]]|flatten
+	"
+	validated_template="$(
+		limactl validate "${template}" --fill 2>/dev/null || echo "{.containerd: {system: false, user: false, archives: []}}"
+	)"
+	yq -o=t eval "${yq_filter}" <<<"${validated_template}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ location_to_sha256 "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img"
+# ae988d797c6de06b9c8a81a2b814904151135ccfd4616c22948057f6280477e8
+# ```
+function location_to_sha256() {
+	(
+		set -o pipefail
+		local -r location="$1"
+		if command -v sha256sum >/dev/null; then
+			sha256="$(echo -n "${location}" | sha256sum | cut -d' ' -f1)"
+		elif command -v shasum >/dev/null; then
+			sha256="$(echo -n "${location}" | shasum -a 256 | cut -d' ' -f1)"
+		else
+			echo "sha256sum or shasum not found" >&2
+			exit 1
+		fi
+		echo "${sha256}"
+	)
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ location_to_cache_path "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img"
+# .download/by-url-sha256/ae988d797c6de06b9c8a81a2b814904151135ccfd4616c22948057f6280477e8
+# ```
+function location_to_cache_path() {
+	local location=$1
+	[[ ${location} != "null" ]] || return
+	sha256=$(location_to_sha256 "${location}") && echo ".download/by-url-sha256/${sha256}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ cache_key_from_prefix_location_and_digest image "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img" "sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a"
+# image:ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img-sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a
+# $ cache_key_from_prefix_location_and_digest image "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img" "null"
+# image:ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img-url-sha256:ae988d797c6de06b9c8a81a2b814904151135ccfd4616c22948057f6280477e8
+# ```
+function cache_key_from_prefix_location_and_digest() {
+	local prefix=$1 location=$2 digest=$3 location_basename
+	[[ ${location} != "null" ]] || return
+	location_basename=$(basename "${location}")
+	if [[ ${digest} != "null" ]]; then
+		echo "${prefix}:${location_basename}-${digest}"
+	else
+		# use sha256 of location as key if digest is not available
+		echo "${prefix}:${location_basename}-url-sha256:$(location_to_sha256 "${location}")"
+	fi
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_path_and_key_for_cache image "https://cloud-images.ubuntu.com/releases/24.04/release-20240809/ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img" "sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a"
+# image-path=.download/by-url-sha256/ae988d797c6de06b9c8a81a2b814904151135ccfd4616c22948057f6280477e8
+# image-key=image:ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img-sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a
+# ```
+function print_path_and_key_for_cache() {
+	local -r prefix=$1 location=$2 digest=$3
+	cache_path=$(location_to_cache_path "${location}" || true)
+	cache_key=$(cache_key_from_prefix_location_and_digest "${prefix}" "${location}" "${digest}" || true)
+	echo "${prefix}-path=${cache_path}"
+	echo "${prefix}-key=${cache_key}"
+}
+
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_cache_informations_from_template templates/default.yaml
+# image-path=.download/by-url-sha256/ae988d797c6de06b9c8a81a2b814904151135ccfd4616c22948057f6280477e8
+# image-key=image:ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-arm64.img-sha256:2e0c90562af1970ffff220a5073a7830f4acc2aad55b31593003e8c363381e7a
+# kernel-path=
+# kernel-key=
+# initrd-path=
+# initrd-key=
+# containerd-path=.download/by-url-sha256/21cc8dfa548ea8a678135bd6984c9feb9f8a01901d10b11bb491f6f4e7537158
+# containerd-key=containerd:nerdctl-full-1.7.6-linux-arm64.tar.gz-sha256:77c747f09853ee3d229d77e8de0dd3c85622537d82be57433dc1fca4493bab95
+# $ print_cache_informations_from_template templates/experimental/riscv64.yaml
+# image-path=.download/by-url-sha256/760b6ec69c801177bdaea06d7ee25bcd6ab72a331b9d3bf38376578164eb8f01
+# image-key=image:ubuntu-24.04-server-cloudimg-riscv64.img-sha256:361d72c5ed9781b097ab2dfb1a489c64e51936be648bbc5badee762ebdc50c31
+# kernel-path=.download/by-url-sha256/4568026693dc0f31a551b6741839979c607ee6bb0bf7209c89f3348321c52c61
+# kernel-key=kernel:qemu-riscv64_smode_uboot.elf-sha256:d4b3a10c3ef04219641802a586dca905e768805f5a5164fb68520887df54f33c
+# initrd-path=
+# initrd-key=
+# ```
+function print_cache_informations_from_template() {
+	(
+		set -o pipefail
+		local template index image_kernel_initrd_info location digest containerd_info
+		template=$(download_template_if_needed "$1") || return
+		local -r template="${template}"
+		index=$(print_image_locations_for_arch_from_template "${template}" "${@:2}" | print_valid_image_index) || return
+		local -r index="${index}"
+		image_kernel_initrd_info=$(print_image_kernel_initrd_locations_with_digest_for_arch_from_template_at_index "${template}" "${index}" "${@:2}") || return
+		# shellcheck disable=SC2034
+		read -r image_location image_digest kernel_location kernel_digest initrd_location initrd_digest <<<"${image_kernel_initrd_info}"
+		for prefix in image kernel initrd; do
+			location=${prefix}_location
+			digest=${prefix}_digest
+			print_path_and_key_for_cache "${prefix}" "${!location}" "${!digest}"
+		done
+		if command -v limactl >/dev/null; then
+			containerd_info=$(print_containerd_config_for_arch_from_template "${template}" "${@:2}") || return
+			read -r containerd_enabled containerd_location containerd_digest <<<"${containerd_info}"
+			if [[ ${containerd_enabled} == "true" ]]; then
+				print_path_and_key_for_cache "containerd" "${containerd_location}" "${containerd_digest}"
+			fi
+		fi
+	)
+}
+
+# Compatible with hashFile() in GitHub Actions
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ hash_file templates/default.yaml
+# ceec5ba3dc8872c083b2eb7f44e3e3f295d5dcdeccf0961ee153be6586525e5e
+# ```
+function hash_file() {
+	(
+		set -o pipefail
+		local hash=""
+		for file in "$@"; do
+			hash="${hash}$(sha256sum "${file}" | cut -d' ' -f1)" || return
+		done
+		echo "${hash}" | xxd -r -p | sha256sum | cut -d' ' -f1
+	)
+}
diff --git a/hack/calculate-cache.sh b/hack/calculate-cache.sh
new file mode 100755
index 00000000000..1d1a89e9555
--- /dev/null
+++ b/hack/calculate-cache.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,237 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+# This script calculates the expected content size, actual cached size, and cache-keys used in caching method before and after
+# implementation in https://github.com/lima-vm/lima/pull/2508
+#
+# Answer to the question in https://github.com/lima-vm/lima/pull/2508#discussion_r1699798651
+
+scriptdir=$(dirname "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")
+# shellcheck source=./common.inc.sh
+. "${scriptdir}/cache-common-inc.sh"
+
+# usage: [DEBUG=1] ./hack/calculate-cache.sh
+# DEBUG=1 will save the collected information in .calculate-cache-collected-info-{before,after}.yaml
+#
+# This script does:
+# 1. extracts `runs_on` and `template` from workflow file (.github/workflows/test.yml)
+# 2. check each template for image, kernel, initrd, and nerdctl
+# 3. detect size of image, kernel, initrd, and nerdctl (responses from remote are cached for faster iteration)
+#    save the response in .check_location-response-cache.yaml
+# 4. print content size, actual cache size (if available), by cache key
+#
+# The major differences for reducing cache usage are as follows:
+# - it is now cached `~/.cache/lima/download/by-url-sha256/$sha256` instead of caching `~/.cache/lima/download`
+# - the cache keys are now based on the image, kernel, initrd, and nerdctl digest instead of the template file's hash
+# - enables the use of cache regardless of the operating system used to execute CI.
+#
+# The script requires the following commands:
+# - gh: GitHub CLI.
+#   Using to get the cache information
+# - jq: Command-line JSON processor
+#   Parse the workflow file and print runs-on and template.
+#   Parse output from gh cache list
+#   Calculate the expected content size, actual cached size, and cache-keys used.
+# - limactl: lima CLI.
+#   Using to validate the template file for getting nerdctl location and digest.
+# - sha256sum: Print or check SHA256 (256-bit) checksums
+# - xxd: make a hexdump or do the reverse.
+#   Using to simulate the 'hashFile()' function in the workflow.
+# - yq: Command-line YAML processor.
+#   Parse the template file for image and nerdctl location, digest, and size.
+#   Parse the cache response file for the cache.
+#   Convert the collected information to JSON.
+
+set -u -o pipefail
+
+required_commands=(gh jq limactl sha256sum xxd yq)
+for cmd in "${required_commands[@]}"; do
+	if ! command -v "${cmd}" &>/dev/null; then
+		echo "${cmd} is required. Please install it" >&2
+		exit 1
+	fi
+done
+
+# current workflow uses x86_64 only
+arch=x86_64
+
+LIMA_HOME=$(mktemp -d)
+export LIMA_HOME
+
+# parse the workflow file and print runs-on and template
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ print_runs_on_template_from_workflow .github/workflows/test.yml
+# macos-12        templates/default.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/alpine.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/debian.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/fedora.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/archlinux.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/opensuse.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/experimental/net-user-v2.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/experimental/9p.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/docker.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/../hack/test-templates/alpine-9p-writable.yaml
+# ubuntu-24.04    templates/../hack/test-templates/test-misc.yaml
+# macos-12        templates/vmnet.yaml
+# macos-12        https://raw.githubusercontent.com/lima-vm/lima/v0.15.1/examples/ubuntu-lts.yaml
+# macos-13        templates/experimental/vz.yaml
+# macos-13        templates/fedora.yaml
+# ```
+function print_runs_on_template_from_workflow() {
+	yq -o=j "$1" | jq -r '
+		"./.github/actions/setup_cache_for_template" as $action |
+		"\\$\\{\\{\\s*(?<path>\\S*)\\s*\\}\\}" as $pattern |
+		.jobs | map_values(select(.steps)|
+			."runs-on" as $runs_on |
+			{
+				template: .steps | map_values(select(.uses == $action)) | first |.with.template,
+				matrix: .strategy.matrix
+			} | select(.template) |
+			. + { path: .template | (if test($pattern) then sub(".*\($pattern).*";"\(.path)")|split(".") else null end) } |
+			(
+				.template as $template|
+				if .path then
+					getpath(.path)|map(. as $item|$template|sub($pattern;$item))
+				else
+					[$template]
+				end
+			) | map("\($runs_on)\t\(.)")
+
+		) | flatten |.[]
+	'
+}
+
+# returns the OS name from the runner equivalent to the expression `${{ runner.os }}` in the workflow
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ runner_os_from_runner "macos-12"
+# macOS
+# $ runner_os_from_runner "ubuntu-24.04"
+# Linux
+# ```
+function runner_os_from_runner() {
+	# shellcheck disable=SC2249
+	case "$1" in
+	macos*)
+		echo macOS
+		;;
+	ubuntu*)
+		echo Linux
+		;;
+	esac
+}
+
+# format first column to MiB
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ echo 585498624 | size_to_mib
+#   558.38 MiB
+# ```
+function size_to_mib() {
+	awk '
+		function mib(size) { return sprintf("%7.2f MiB", size / 1024 / 1024) }
+		int($1)>0{ $1=" "mib($1) }
+		int($2)>0{ $2=mib($2) }
+		int($2)==0 && NF>1{ $2="<<missing>>" }
+		{ print }
+	'
+}
+
+# actual_cache_sizes=$(gh cache list --json key,createdAt,sizeInBytes|jq '[.[]|{"key":.key,"value":.sizeInBytes}]|from_entries')
+# e.g.
+# ```console
+# $ echo "${actual_cache_sizes}"
+# {
+#   "Linux-1c3b2791d52735d916dc44767c745c2319eb7cae74af71bbf45ddb268f42fc1d": 810758533,
+#   "Linux-231c66957fc2cdb18ea10e63f60770049026e29051ecd6598fc390b60d6a4fa6": 633036717,
+#   "Linux-3b906d46fa532e3bc348c35fc8e7ede6c69f0b27032046ee2cbb56d4022d1146": 574242367,
+#   "Linux-69a547b760dbf1650007ed541408474237bc611704077214adcac292de556444": 70310855,
+#   "Linux-7782f8b4ff8cd378377eb79f8d61c9559b94bbd0c11d19eb380ee7bda19af04e": 494141177,
+#   "Linux-8812aedfe81b4456d421645928b493b1f2f88aff04b7f3171207492fd44cd189": 812730766,
+#   "Linux-caa7d8af214d55ad8902e82d5918e61573f3d6795d2b5ad9a35305e26fa0e6a9": 754723892,
+#   "Linux-colima-v0.6.5": 226350335,
+#   "Linux-de83bce0608d787e3c68c7a31c5fab2b6d054320fd7bf633a031845e2ee03414": 810691197,
+#   "Linux-eb88a19dfcf2fb98278e7c7e941c143737c6d7cd8950a88f58e04b4ee7cef1bc": 570625794,
+#   "Linux-f88f0b3b678ff6432386a42bdd27661133c84a36ad29f393da407c871b0143eb": 68490954,
+#   "golangci-lint.cache-Linux-2850-74615231540133417fd618c72e37be92c5d3b3ad": 2434144,
+#   "macOS-231c66957fc2cdb18ea10e63f60770049026e29051ecd6598fc390b60d6a4fa6": 633020464,
+#   "macOS-49aa50a4872ded07ebf657c0eaf9e44ecc0c174d033a97c537ecd270f35b462f": 813179462,
+#   "macOS-8f37f663956af5f743f0f99ab973729b6a02f200ebfac7a3a036eff296550732": 810756770,
+#   "macOS-ef5509b5d4495c8c3590442ee912ad1c9a33f872dc4a29421c524fc1e2103b59": 813179476,
+#   "macOS-upgrade-v0.15.1": 1157814690,
+#   "setup-go-Linux-ubuntu20-go-1.23.0-02756877dbcc9669bb904e42e894c63aa9801138db94426a90a2d554f2705c52": 1015518352,
+#   "setup-go-Linux-ubuntu20-go-1.23.0-6bce2eefc6111ace836de8bb322432c072805737d5f3c5a3d47d2207a05f50df": 936433302,
+#   "setup-go-Linux-ubuntu24-go-1.22.6-02756877dbcc9669bb904e42e894c63aa9801138db94426a90a2d554f2705c52": 1090001859,
+#   "setup-go-Linux-ubuntu24-go-1.23.0-02756877dbcc9669bb904e42e894c63aa9801138db94426a90a2d554f2705c52": 526146768,
+#   "setup-go-Windows-go-1.23.0-02756877dbcc9669bb904e42e894c63aa9801138db94426a90a2d554f2705c52": 1155374040,
+#   "setup-go-Windows-go-1.23.0-6bce2eefc6111ace836de8bb322432c072805737d5f3c5a3d47d2207a05f50df": 1056433137,
+#   "setup-go-macOS-go-1.23.0-02756877dbcc9669bb904e42e894c63aa9801138db94426a90a2d554f2705c52": 1060919942,
+#   "setup-go-macOS-go-1.23.0-6bce2eefc6111ace836de8bb322432c072805737d5f3c5a3d47d2207a05f50df": 982139209
+# }
+actual_cache_sizes=$(
+	gh cache list --json key,createdAt,sizeInBytes \
+		--jq 'sort_by(.createdAt)|reverse|unique_by(.key)|sort_by(.key)|map({"key":.key,"value":.sizeInBytes})|from_entries'
+)
+
+workflows=(
+	.github/workflows/test.yml
+)
+
+# shellcheck disable=SC2016
+echo "=> compare expected content size, actual cached size, and cache-keys used before and after the change in https://github.com/lima-vm/lima/pull/2508"
+# iterate over before and after
+for cache_method in before after; do
+	echo "==> ${cache_method}"
+	echo "content-size actual-size cache-key"
+	output_yaml=$(
+		for workflow in "${workflows[@]}"; do
+			print_runs_on_template_from_workflow "${workflow}"
+		done | while IFS=$'\t' read -r runner template; do
+			template=$(download_template_if_needed "${template}") || continue
+			arch=$(detect_arch "${template}" "${arch}") || continue
+			index=$(print_image_locations_for_arch_from_template "${template}" "${arch}" | print_valid_image_index) || continue
+			image_kernel_initrd_info=$(print_image_kernel_initrd_locations_with_digest_for_arch_from_template_at_index "${template}" "${index}" "${arch}") || continue
+			# shellcheck disable=SC2034 # shellcheck does not detect dynamic variables usage
+			read -r image_location image_digest kernel_location kernel_digest initrd_location initrd_digest <<<"${image_kernel_initrd_info}"
+			containerd_info=$(print_containerd_config_for_arch_from_template "${template}" "${@:2}") || continue
+			# shellcheck disable=SC2034 # shellcheck does not detect dynamic variables usage
+			read -r _containerd_enabled containerd_location containerd_digest <<<"${containerd_info}"
+
+			if [[ ${cache_method} != after ]]; then
+				key=$(runner_os_from_runner "${runner}" || true)-$(hash_file "${template}")
+			else
+				key=$(cache_key_from_prefix_location_and_digest image "${image_location}" "${image_digest}")
+			fi
+			size=$(size_from_location "${image_location}")
+			for prefix in containerd kernel initrd; do
+				location="${prefix}_location"
+				digest="${prefix}_digest"
+				[[ ${!location} != null ]] || continue
+				if [[ ${cache_method} != after ]]; then
+					# previous caching method packages all files in download to a single cache key
+					size=$((size + $(size_from_location "${!location}")))
+				else
+					# new caching method caches each file separately
+					key_for_prefix=$(cache_key_from_prefix_location_and_digest "${prefix}" "${!location}" "${!digest}")
+					size_for_prefix=$(size_from_location "${!location}")
+					printf -- "- key: %s\n  template: %s\n  location: %s\n  digest: %s\n  size: %s\n" \
+						"${key_for_prefix}" "${template}" "${!location}" "${!digest}" "${size_for_prefix}"
+				fi
+			done
+			printf -- "- key: %s\n  template: %s\n  location: %s\n  digest: %s\n  size: %s\n" \
+				"${key}" "${template}" "${image_location}" "${image_digest}" "${size}"
+		done
+	)
+	output_json=$(yq -o=j . <<<"${output_yaml}")
+
+	# print size key
+	jq --argjson actual_size "${actual_cache_sizes}" -r 'unique_by(.key)|sort_by(.key)|.[]|[.size, $actual_size[.key] // 0, .key]|@tsv' <<<"${output_json}" | size_to_mib
+	# total
+	echo "------------"
+	jq '[unique_by(.key)|.[]|.size]|add' <<<"${output_json}" | size_to_mib
+	# save the collected information as yaml if DEBUG is set
+	if [[ -n ${DEBUG:+1} ]]; then
+		cat <<<"${output_yaml}" >".calculate-cache-collected-info-${cache_method}.yaml"
+		echo "Saved the collected information in .calculate-cache-collected-info-${cache_method}.yaml"
+	fi
+	echo ""
+done
diff --git a/hack/debug-cache.sh b/hack/debug-cache.sh
index d2f3ba9be72..db04cf1b05d 100755
--- a/hack/debug-cache.sh
+++ b/hack/debug-cache.sh
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ cache_dir="${HOME}/Library/Caches"
 if [ "$(uname -s)" != "Darwin" ]; then
 	cache_dir="${HOME}/.cache"
 fi
-if [ ! -e "${cache_dir}/lima" ]; then
+if [ ! -e "${cache_dir}/lima/download/by-url-sha256" ]; then
 	echo "No cache"
 	exit 0
 fi