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<h1>JJR Macleod</h1>
<h3 class="p-heading"> Aberdeen's Nobel Prize Winning <br/> Co-discoverer of Insulin </h3>
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<h2>Who was JJR Macleod?</h2>
<p><em id="1">John James Rickard Macleod</em> grew up and was educated in Aberdeen and should undoubtedly be hailed as one of the North-east's most eminent medical scientists. Yet his remarkable achievements are still too little known. </p>
<p>This website has been prepared in anticipation the centenary, in January 2022, of one of the world's most important medical advances – the discovery of insulin. It tells the story of how JJR Macleod became an internationally famous academic physiologist who went on to lead the team in Toronto to a life-saving triumph. As a consequence, he shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1923 for his work on insulin. Unfair and unfounded criticism of Macleod's contributions – by his research associate and fellow Nobel laureate, Frederick Banting, and his allies – soured what should have been a glorious success, and greatly diminished Macleod's reputation. He returned to Aberdeen on appointment as Professor of Physiology at Marischal College in 1928 and died in post in 1935 at the age of only 58. </p>
<p>It took almost 50 more years for the record to be put straight. In 1982, Canadian historian, Professor Michael Bliss, published 'The Discovery of Insulin', a detailed account of the events leading up to the preparation in Toronto of the world's first insulin to be used successfully to treat human diabetes. This account at last told the full story – and clearly established Macleod's essential role in giving insulin to the world. </p>
<p>Almost 100 years on, it is timely to retell Macleod's history – and let a wider audience reflect on his greatness. </p>
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<a id="f1" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/jjr_macleod_portrait.jpg" ><img src="images/small/jjr_macleod_portrait.jpg" title="Portrait of Professor JJR Macleod" alt="Professor JJR Macleod" class="l-ver"></a>
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<h2>His early life</h2>
<h3>Early years - 1876 to 1893</h3>
<p>John James Rickard Macleod was born on 6th September 1876 in the <em id="2">manse at Clunie near Dunkeld in Perthshire</em>. Arriving on the eve of their first wedding anniversary, he was the first child of Free Church minister, the <em id="3">Reverend Robert Macleod</em> and his wife, Jane. Around his third birthday, the family moved to Keith in Banffshire where his father served the <em id="4">Free Church</em> congregation for 4 years while living in the <em id="5">church manse</em>. </p>
<p>In late 1883, at the age of 7, his family moved to Aberdeen. The Rev Macleod, a native of Caithness, had previously graduated MA from the University of Aberdeen and had studied Divinity at the Free Church College in Alford Place. He returned to the city to become minister at the John Knox Free Church in Gerrard Street which was to remain his charge - albeit in an imposing <em id="6">new granite building from 1900</em> - for over thirty years until he retired to Edinburgh in 1915.</p>
<p>The Macleod family lived at <em id="7">86 Rosemount Place</em> (now Belmuir House) throughout the time that JJR, usually known as Jack, attended <em id="8">Aberdeen Grammar School (1884-93)</em> down <em id="9">Esslemont Avenue</em>. In 1895, in the middle of his university studies, the Macleod family moved to a larger, newly built house named 'Dunkeith' (<em id="10">now 15 King's Gate</em>).</p>
<h3>University education - 1893 to 1898</h3>
<p>He entered the University of Aberdeen as an undergraduate in October 1893 having passed the University Preliminary Examination two weeks earlier. He excelled throughout the course (newly extended to five years) winning many prizes, including the Matthews Duncan medal in obstetrics that had been endowed by the highly distinguished medical practitioner <em id="11">James Matthews Duncan</em> who, like Macleod, had been educated at Aberdeen Grammar School and the University of Aberdeen.</p>
<p>Macleod did his academic medical studies at Marischal College (before the front section of the current quadrangle was built at the start of last century) and in Aberdeen's hospital facilities of the day. In the mid-1890s there was a recently opened Maternity Unit in nearby Barnett's Close, out-patients were seen at the Public Dispensary across in Guestrow, infectious diseases were managed at the City Hospital in Urquhart Road, the Children's Hospital was in Castle Terrace and the main Infirmary, with medical and surgical facilities, was at Woolmanhill. Macleod graduated MB ChB with Honourable Distinction in 1898.</p>
<h3>The young physiologist - 1898 to 1903</h3>
<p>He competed successfully for the Anderson Scholarship which funded a year's research in the <em id="12">Physiologische Insitut in Leipzig</em>. He then returned to work in Aberdeen for a time, before moving to the <em id="13">London Hospital Medical College</em> in October 1900, first as demonstrator in physiology and later lecturer in the emerging field of biochemistry. Over three years he published research on a variety of areas in clinical chemistry and was additionally appointed as Chemist to the Pathological Institute at the London Hospital. He was also developing what were to become major interests in teaching, including the publication of textbooks.</p>
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<a id="f2" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2_birthplace.jpg"><img src="images/small/2_birthplace.jpg" title="An aerial photograph of the former manse at Clunie near Dunkeld, Perthshire where JJR Macleod was born on 6th September 1876." alt="Macleod's birthplace"></a>
<a id="f3" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3_rev_rm.jpg"><img src="images/small/3_rev_rm.jpg" title="The Reverend Robert Macleod (1846 - 1927), father of JJR Macleod." alt="Rev Robert Macleod"></a>
<a id="f4" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/4_free_church_keith.jpg" ><img src="images/small/4_free_church_keith.jpg" title="This is the Free Church in Keith built in 1843 and where Macleod's father was minister from 1879 - 83. It is now known as Keith North Church run by the Church of Scotland." alt="Free Church, Keith"></a>
<a id="f5" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/5_fc_manse_keith.jpg" ><img src="images/small/5_fc_manse_keith.jpg" title="This was the Macleods' home during their years in Keith." alt="Church Manse, Keith"></a>
<a id="f6" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/6_g_st_ch_2020.jpg" ><img src="images/small/6_g_st_ch_2020.jpg" title="Gerrard Street Church, Aberdeen now a Baptist Church, photographed in 2020. This building was erected and opened as a replacement for an earlier building in 1900. Rev Robert Macleod oversaw the building of the new church during his ministry here from 1884 - 1915." alt="Gerrard Street Church"></a>
<a id="f7" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/7_86rp_2020.jpg" ><img src="images/small/7_86rp_2020.jpg" title="Belmuir House, 86 Rosemount Place, Aberdeen where the Macleod family lived for over 11 years after their arrival from Keith at the end of 1883." alt="Family home in Rosemount"></a>
<a id="f8" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/9_ags_class_photo.jpg" ><img src="images/small/9_ags_class_photo.jpg" title="Class III Senior Initiatory Department, Aberdeen Grammar School session 1885-6 with young Jack Macleod highlighted in the 2nd row." alt="At school aged 9"></a>
<a id="f9" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/8_ags_old.jpg" ><img src="images/small/8_ags_old.jpg" title="Photographed from Esslemont Avenue, where JJR Macleod had most of his school education (1884-93). Built in 1863, this early photograph precedes the addition of East and West wings and the arrival of the Shanghai Clock (1927) and Lord Byron's statue (1932)." alt="Aberdeen Grammar School"></a>
<a id="f10" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/15_kingsgate_PXL_20210724_103919146_m1.jpg" ><img src="images/small/15_kingsgate_PXL_20210724_103919146_m1.jpg" title="The Macleod family home 'Dunkeith', now 15 King's Gate, which Rev Macleod had built in 1895 and from where Macleod would have finished his medical degree." alt="Family home from 1895 in King's Gate"></a>
<a id="f11" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/11_jm_duncan.jpg" ><img src="images/small/11_jm_duncan.jpg" title="Portrait of James Matthews Duncan who was a pioneering physician in the field of Obstetrics. Like JJR, he had studied at Aberdeen Grammar School and Aberdeen University. He published widely including on diabetes in pregnancy and the Obstetrics medal at the University of Aberdeen was named for him after his death in 1890. Macleod was the winner of the Matthews Duncan medal in 1898." alt="Professor James Matthews Duncan"></a>
<a id="f12" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/12_pi_leipzig.jpg" ><img src="images/small/12_pi_leipzig.jpg" title="This is a picture of the Physiologische Institut in Leipzig, Germany where Macleod undertook his Anderson Travelling Scholarship studies training in physiological chemistry and completing work for his first publication. J A MacWilliam, his physiology professor in Aberdeen, had earlier studied cardiac physiology there." alt="Physiologische Institut, Leipzig"></a>
<a id="f13" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/13_lh_med_coll.jpg" ><img src="images/small/13_lh_med_coll.jpg" title="The buildings of London Hospital Medical College where Macleod worked, developing his career as a physiologist , lecturer and contributor to medical text books." alt="London Hospital Medical College"></a>
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<a id="f14" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/1_jjrm_1903.jpg" ><img src="images/small/1_jjrm_1903.jpg" title="A photograph of JJR Macleod taken around the time he took up the post of Professor of Physiology in Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio in 1903 aged 27 years." alt="JJR Macleod ca 1903"></a>
<a id="f15" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2_med_sch_and_lab_ohio.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2_med_sch_and_lab_ohio.jpg" title="Western Reserve Medical School, Cleveland, Ohio, as it was in Macleod's time there. The building to the right is the Chemical Physiology Laboratory where he undertook research." alt="Medical School, Ohio"></a>
<a id="f16" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3_1913_monograph.jpg" ><img src="images/small/3_1913_monograph.jpg" title="This shows a hard-bound copy and the title page of Macleod's monograph, 'Diabetes: Its Pathological Physiology', which was published in 1913." alt="Macleod's 1913 Diabetes textbook"></a>
<a id="f17" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/4_med_sch_toronto_1922.jpg" ><img src="images/small/4_med_sch_toronto_1922.jpg" title="This photograph of the Medical School Buildings at the University of Toronto was taken by Mrs Macleod's niece, Elizabeth McWalter, when visiting from Scotland in 1922." alt="Toronto Medical School 1922"></a>
<a id="f18" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/5_wife_in_garden.jpg" ><img src="images/small/5_wife_in_garden.jpg" title="This picture of Mrs Mary Macleod in her garden was taken by her niece in 1922." alt="Mrs Mary Macleod"></a>
<a id="f19" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/6_45_nanton_ave.jpg" ><img src="images/small/6_45_nanton_ave.jpg" title="The partly white-fronted house is where the Macleods lived at 45 Nanton Avenue during the years they were in Toronto." alt="Macleods' Toronto house"></a>
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<h2>The move to the United States then Canada</h2>
<h3>Appointed Professor in Ohio at 26 - 1903</h3>
<p>The early endeavours and achievements of Macleod as both researcher and teacher led in 1903, while still only <em id="14">26 years of age</em>, to his being invited to apply for the Chair of Physiology at <em id="15">Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio</em>. He was offered the post in June, was married in July to Mary Watson McWalter (a 2nd cousin from Paisley), and the couple sailed from Glasgow on 28th August to a new life in the New World. Macleod's success continued over the 15 years he spent in Cleveland. His physiology and biochemistry teaching was highly regarded by his students; he put particular emphasis on practical classes as a means of teaching. His research was also successful and varied but, perhaps after writing a textbook chapter on the subject in 1906, became increasingly focussed on studies of carbohydrate metabolism and experimental diabetes. He developed a series of 8 lectures showing the relationship between his own research and internationally published papers which led to his book called <em id="16">Diabetes: Its Pathological Physiology in 1913</em>. A series of 12 publications on his original studies in the field appeared over 10 years to 1917 in the American Journal of Physiology. He became a member of several prestigious societies (including in Germany and Italy!) and was invited widely to talk on his work - including a presentation at the meeting of the British Medical Association held in Aberdeen a few weeks before the outbreak of war in 1914. He contributed to the war effort from 1916 with studies on gas masks, aviation physiology, food conservation and societal nutrition. At the same time he was working on the first edition of a highly successful textbook called Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine (for which he wrote 90% of the chapters).</p>
<h3>Move to Toronto - 1918</h3>
<p>By the time his new textbook was published late in 1918, Macleod had left Cleveland and moved to the <em id="17">University of Toronto</em> which had been trying for two years to persuade him to join as Professor of Physiology and to help with the redevelopment of their medical course; perhaps it is no coincidence that by 1927 it would be rated the number one North American medical college. Macleod and <em id="18">his wife</em> set up house at <em id="19">45 Nanton Avenue</em> in the Rosedale district of Toronto. The year after his move, Macleod was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and in 1920 began seven years as Associate Dean at his new university. He continued with scientific presentations and publications at home and abroad based on his research studies on topics including effects of heat and cold exposure, metabolic acidosis, lactate measurement and regulation of blood sugar. His career as a research physiologist and as an innovative teacher continued to blossom - but he could not have imagined to what heights it was about to progress.</p>
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<h2>The discovery of Insulin</h2>
<h3>The main players</h3>
<p>Several accounts have been written of this magnificent tale, the most comprehensively researched being the relatively recent book, <em id="20">'The Discovery of Insulin'</em> published by Toronto history professor, Michael Bliss in 1982. There were four main participants each of whom brought important attributes to the table. <em id="21">Professor Macleod</em>, as we have seen, was already an experienced researcher with an international reputation in the field of the pathophysiology of diabetes. <em id="22">Bertram Collip</em>, a Toronto graduate, was a professor of biochemistry in Alberta who was to spend several months doing research in Macleod's department in 1921. <em id="23">Charles Best</em> was a physiology student of Macleod graduating BA in late spring 1921 and due to do a summer attachment before continuing university studies in the autumn. The fourth participant, on whose 'big idea' the story is often focussed, was Canadian medical graduate, <em id="24">Frederick Banting</em>.</p>
<h3>Banting meets Macleod - November 1920</h3>
<p>Born on a farm in Ontario in 1892, Frederick Banting studied medicine in Toronto where his class were rushed through final year to graduate early in late 1916 so they could contribute to the war effort. Banting spent time working in military hospitals in England before being sent to the front in June 1918. With the rank of Captain, he was awarded a Military Cross for bravery under fire at Cambrai and received a shrapnel wound to his arm which ended his active service. After recovering in England, he spent time in the military hospital in Toronto before being demobbed. He then had a year of surgical training but was not offered a further post in surgery and so set up a general practice in London, Ontario. Business was slow and he undertook some teaching to supplement his income. While preparing a lecture on the pancreas and studying relevant books and journals he one night <em id="25">came up with an idea</em> that might allow preparation of an extract for treating diabetes. He was directed by his seniors to consult with Macleod, a world expert on the subject, in nearby Toronto - and they met on the 8th of November.</p>
<h3>Diabetes in 1920 - the background</h3>
<p>It is worth pointing out the situation as regards diabetes and the search for a treatment at this time. There were no useful drugs available. Those developing the severe form of the condition (known nowadays as Type 1 diabetes) were typically children and young adults. The diagnosis was effectively a death sentence with survival in terms of a few weeks to, at most, a few years. The only treatment, a very sparse diet amounting to near starvation, was for many worse than the disease.</p>
<p>It had seemed likely since 1889 that a defect in the pancreas may cause some kinds of diabetes. Many groups had tried to isolate a pancreatic extract that could lower the blood sugar in experimental animals. Some - including <em id="26">Rennie</em> and <em id="27">Fraser</em> in Aberdeen experimenting with fish pancreas <em id="28">in the early 1900s</em> - had unsucesfully tried extracts on patients with diabetes. A few researchers' extracts, from as early as 1906, had temporarily shown some lowering of blood sugar but all were too toxic to be tolerated for more than a day or two. Many doubted whether there would ever be a useful pancreas extract produced. Eventually, some hope for those researching in diabetes came with the development of techniques for measuring sugar on small amounts of blood; this at last made repeat testing, to look for acute effects of extracts, a possibility.</p>
<h3>The experiments begin - May 1921</h3>
<p>Despite Banting's lack of research experience and limited knowledge of the subject, Macleod continued his custom of encouraging young researchers and invited Banting to come to his laboratory for a few weeks the following summer where he would be given lab space, a student assistant and some dogs to work on. In May 1921, Banting arrived in Toronto and had meetings with Macleod to discuss the plan of research - and the Professor demonstrated the techniques of pancreas surgery on an anaesthetised dog. Charles Best was to be Banting's assistant and the pair set out on a few weeks of <em id="29">experiments</em>. The techniques were difficult and numerous dogs died during or shortly after surgery. Their skills improved, however, and by the end of July, they had successfully prepared an extract that was shown to lower the blood glucose in a diabetic dog. Thier early extracts were impure and not well tolerated such that most dogs receiving them did not survive for very long.</p>
<h3>Some success - and some difficulties - July and August 1921</h3>
<p>By this stage, it seems Banting was already totally convinced that he was the first to discover what would become known as insulin. He was apparently quite unaware that his 'big idea' - of tying the pancreatic duct and waiting for the digestive part of the gland to shrivel up - had been tried many years before - and, in any event, was an unnecessary and complicated step. He did not seem to appreciate that a number of researchers had already got this far with pancreas extracts - even using them (briefly!) in human diabetes. But all of the extracts produced so far were not well-tolerated by the diabetic dogs or patients receiving them. He resented Macleod's cautious and experienced advice that repeated and more carefully conducted studies would be needed to produce safely reliable results. For Banting, this was to become lifelong suspicion and paranoia over Macleod's motivation.</p>
<h3>Towards longer survival and purer extracts late - September to December 1921</h3>
<p>Macleod provided resources and facilities to allow Banting and Best to continue their studies, regularly advising on the necessary steps. The results were rather mixed but hopeful, especially when they were able to keep a dog alive for several weeks after removal of its pancreas. The problem remained of purifying an extract sufficiently to allow its use in diabetes patients and that is where Bertram Collip's crucial contribution came into play. By December, <em id="30">Collip joined the team</em> to work on the preparation of alcohol extracts, as advised by Macleod, to reduce the toxic impurities. Collip also conducted studies to show the extract could reverse other abnormalities than high glucose levels in diabetic dogs, and, also on Macleod's recomendation, developed a method using rabbits to measure the potency of different batches of extract. Banting meantime had been so concerned about the progress Collip was making that he had given his and Best's extract by mouth to a diabetic patient in December; it had no effect. By the end of December 1921, the group was ready to present its preliminary results to the <em id="31">American Physiological Society</em>, of which Macleod was now president. Banting gave the talk but public speaking did not come easy to him and support from Macleod - who was chairing the meeting session - was once again perceived by Banting as the professor wanting to steal his success.</p>
<h3>An effective treatment for diabetes - January 1922</h3>
<p>Banting's next ploy was to insist that his and Best's extract was given by injection to a patient, <em id="34">Leonard Thompson</em>, on 11th January when it had a slight effect on sugar but quickly produced abscesses where injected and so had to be abandoned. Collip meantime forged ahead with his experiments and soon had a cleaner and more potent extract ready for trial. On 23rd January 1922, Collip's extract was injected into Leonard Thompson who was in the late stages of wasting and exhaustion due to diabetes. The extract had a dramatic effect on the patient's blood glucose levels and general well-being and clinically useful, insulin had at last been discovered!</p>
<h3>Finding out about and sharing insulin</h3>
<p>Amidst the miraculous <em id="32">resurrections</em><em id="33"></em> effected by the long sought for life-saving treatment for diabetes - soon to be named 'insulin' - an extraordinary amount of work still had to be done. Macleod turned over all of his research laboratory and staff to investigating insulin's physiological properties. He took the lead in organising the dissemination of the news of the discovery - but let Banting and Best be named as the first two authors on the <em id="35">initial paper published on the discovery</em> in the Journal of the Canadian Medical Association and, unusual for the head of a research department, declined to have his own name included. There were problems in maintaining insulin supplies and soon collaboration with the American pharmaceutical firm of Eli Lilly was established to facilitate mass production. A University of Toronto patent was taken out and Macleod ensured that arrangements were also made for production in Europe. The Brittish Medical Research Council oversaw the introduction of insulin in the UK, cautiously beginning with their own studies on its safety and effectivness; this delayed its availabilty being announced in Britain until April 1923.</p>
<h3>Who got the credit - and who deserved it?</h3>
<p>History has dealt very differently with the four main players in the Toronto discovery team and its regard for their respective contributions. That Banting was misguided in the belief that his 'big idea' led directly to the discovery is clearly apparent: the idea of tying off the pancreatic duct to make extracts had been completely abandoned in the autumn of 1921. By the time Collip joined in, the extracts were all being prepared from fresh whole cow pancreas readily obtained from the local abattoir. However, Banting and his allies continued to lobby against Macleod claiming that the latter had made virtually no contribution to the research while attempting to steal the glory. The legend grew of the Canadian farm boy having an inspired idea and beating all the odds in making a great medical discovery despite the oppression of the professor. Banting was hailed as a local hero; he was given a generous annuity by the Canadian Government and a Professorship in his own institute with annual research funding by the University of Toronto. After treating patients with insulin for about 2 years, Banting left diabetes to focus on new areas of research but in fact made no further significant contributions to medical science. Best and Collip, who received none of the acclaim – or funding – accorded to Banting, each went on to make several important scientific discoveries and contributions in their future successful careers. </p>
<p>In reflecting on who deserved the credit for bringing useful insulin to the world, Professor Michael Bliss of Toronto concluded in his definitive 1982 book, 'The Discovery of Insulin', that Banting, Best, Collip and Macleod all deserved a share of the credit. It was true that previous researchers had found pancreatic extracts that lowered glucose, mostly in diabetic dogs, but none had previously produced anything reliably suitable for treating human diabetes. The labours of Banting and Best on their dogs through the hot summer of 1921 had undoubtedly driven the work forward and led to the production of a crude extract - but this barely matched the achievements of Zuelzer in Berlin some 15 years before. Undoubtedly, the expertise and industry of Collip in rapidly producing a purified extract of whole bovine pancreas was an absolutely crucial step in yielding the long sought after, effective treatment for human diabetes. The input of Macleod was essential in planning and guiding the research, in ensuring its rigorously proven scientific value, in evaluating the various properties of insulin, and in presenting it to <em id="36">the world</em><em id="37"></em>. Without the professor’s vast experience of experimental carbohydrate physiology the work would surely, like in other laboratories before, have ended well short of its ultimate success. </p>
<h3>The Nobel Prize - 1923</h3>
<p>The Nobel Prize Committee recognised the major breakthrough made by the discovery of usable insulin and in 1923, unusually quickly after the discovery, jointly awarded the <em id="38">Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology</em><em id="39"> </em><em id="40"> </em> to Banting and Macleod. Banting was furious at Macleod's inclusion and almost refused to accept. Neither Best nor Collip had been nominated; the rules allow a maximum of 3 scientists sharing a Nobel Prize. Banting gave half of his prize money to Best; Macleod shared his with Collip. Banting, still totally (and misguidedly) convinced that his idea and work was all-important, continued to complain about the trivial contribution of Macleod, the world famous professor, had supported an enthusiastic but inexperienced researcher and granted him facilities in his laboratory.</p>
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<a id="f20" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/7_disc_of_ins.jpg" ><img src="images/small/7_disc_of_ins.jpg" title="'The Discovery of Insulin', published in 1982 by University of Toronto Historian, Professor Michael Bliss, used many original documentary sources and witness accounts to produce what many regard as the definitive version of this complex and disputed story. The dust cover of this 1987 (Macmillan Press) edition features the signatures of each of the four main researchers involved." alt="'The Discovery of Insulin'"></a>
<a id="f21" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/8_jjrm_toronto.jpg" ><img src="images/small/8_jjrm_toronto.jpg" title="This is a picture of Professor Macleod taken in the early 1920s, around the time of the insulin discovery." alt="Professor JJR Macleod"></a>
<a id="f22" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/9_collip.jpg" ><img src="images/small/9_collip.jpg" title="James Bertram Collip, a Toronto triple graduate (BA 1912; MA 1913; PhD 1916), was Professor of Biochemistry in the University of Alberta, Edmonton when he came back to Toronto on a travelling fellowship in 1921, planning to spend several months working in Macleod's department. After joining the work on pancreatic extracts in December, he made several contributions, the most important being significant improvements in their purity. He went on to make further major contributions in hormone research and medical education in his later career." alt="Professor J B Collip"></a>
<a id="f23" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/10_best.jpg" ><img src="images/small/10_best.jpg" title="Charles Best, a student in Macleod's department, was just completing his BA in Physiology and Biochemistry when Banting arrived. He had arranged to do a summer research studentship ahead of entering the masters programme in Physiology that autumn. He allegedly gained his role as Banting's assistant in the diabetic dog experiments on the toss of a coin. He made a major contribution in analysing the blood sugar samples during the early experiments and later in scaling up insulin production. In subsequent years, he did a PhD in England before returning to Toronto to succeed Macleod in the Chair of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Although he made scientific breakthroughs in more than one area he never got beyond being an unsuccessful nominee for a Nobel Prize." alt="Mr Charles H Best"></a>
<a id="f24" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/11_banting.jpg" ><img src="images/small/11_banting.jpg" title="Fred Banting was brought up on a farm in Ontario. He graduated in medicine in late 1916, the final exams brought forward on account of the War. He went to England and then, in June 1918, to the front in France. He won a Military Cross for bravery under fire at Cambrai and sustained a shrapnel wound to his forearm. He completed military service as a surgeon in Toronto then had a further year of surgical training. He did not get the hoped for staff post in surgery so set up in independent general practice in London, Ontario in 1920. That autumn and with little prior interest in diabetes, while preparing a student lecture on the pancreas he had his idea of producing an effective treatment for diabetes by first tying off the pancreatic duct in a dog. He took his idea to Macleod, an international figure in diabetes research who was now professor of physiology in Toronto. Macleod offered him laboratory space and a student assistant the following summer to investigate pancreatic extracts.
The research, detailed in Bliss's 'The Discovery of Insulin' led over the summer to the production of extracts that had some effect in lowering sugar in experimentally diabetic dogs. Banting was sure he had already discovered the cure for diabetes - but by this stage he had only got as far as several earlier researchers had already managed. Further research studies, overseen by Macleod, the highly experienced scientist - and involving Collip, the visiting professor of biochemistry - led by January 1922 to the first successful trials in a diabetic patient (using Collip's preparation a couple of weeks after that of Banting & Best had had limited effect but high toxicity). Macleod oversaw the complex procedure of investigating the physiological properties of the extract, publishing and publicising their scientific findings and arranging for the extract - in due course named 'insulin' - to be mass produced and available across the world.
Although Banting went on to work for 2 years in diabetes practice, becoming one of the first experienced in the use of insulin, he repeatedly resented Macleod getting any credit for what he considered his own discovery; he did not seem to even realise that his 'big idea' had been abandoned some time before the experimental production of clinically useful insulin. Banting was furious when it was announced in 1923 that he and Macleod were to share the 1923 Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology - at first threatening to refuse the honour - but in the end sharing his prize money with Best. (Macleod shared his with Collip). Banting had all sorts of honours bestowed on him - including a permanent post with annual research funding in his own institute. He soon abandoned his interest in diabetes and, despite aiming to find a cure for cancer, his subsequent research did not amount to anything of significance. He had set off on a mission to Europe to exchange medical information during World War 2 when his plane crashed in Newfoundland and he died at the age of 49 early in 1941." alt="Dr Frederick G Banting"></a>
<a id="f25" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/1_bantings_idea.jpg" ><img src="images/small/1_bantings_idea.jpg" title="This shows a picture of the entry written by Banting in his notebook in the early hours of 31st October 1920 (with a more clearly legible typed version alongside). This was Banting's big idea that set him off on the road to Macleod and research studies in Toronto. The incorrect spelling of diabetes may reflect Banting's very limited knowledge of the subject. The idea was to tie off the main duct in the pancreas in dogs to cause the collections of digestive cells (the acini) to die off over a few weeks leaving only the islet cells which may be the source of the factor that lowered blood sugar (later called insulin). The idea had been tried years before with no success and, while it stimulated Banting's involvement in new studies in Macleod's laboratory, it was discarded in due course as an irrelevant and cumbersome step in the production of the pancreatic extracts that eventually proved effective in life-saving diabetes treatment." alt="Note from October 1920"></a>
<a id="f26" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2_john_rennie.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2_john_rennie.jpg" title="Dr John Rennie (1865 - 1928) was a double graduate (BSc 1898; DSc 1903) of the University of Aberdeen. He was an assistant to the Professor in Zoology 1899-1917 when he was promoted to the post of Lecturer in Parasitology. Some of his early research into teleost fishes showed that their pancreas had a nodule of tissue (the principal islet) that may be composed of cells similar to islet cells, the suspected source of insulin, that are scattered throughout the pancreas in mammals. This led to an attempt to find the treatment for diabetes (see 28). He was later responsible for his book and lectures on natural history education for a generation of trainee schoolteachers, and gained further fame among bee keepers for his researches into Isle of Wight disease of honey bees." alt="John Rennie"></a>
<a id="f27" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3_thomas_fraser.jpg" ><img src="images/small/3_thomas_fraser.jpg" title="Thomas Fraser (1872-1951) was born in Kintore and studied arts (MA '94) then medicine at the University of Aberdeen in the same class as JJR Macleod (MB ChB '98). As a young medic in the University, he worked with John Rennie on a study trying to treat diabetes with an extract from fish pancreas. He later had a distinguished military career in WW1 earning a DSO. He worked at the Royal Infirmary and in General Practice from 16 Albyn Place where there is a commemorative plaque erected by the City Council. He was president of the British Medical Association 1939-42" alt="Thomas Fraser"></a>
<a id="f28" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/4_r_and_f_paper.jpg" ><img src="images/small/4_r_and_f_paper.jpg" title="This paper, published in the Journal of Biochemistry in early 1907 describes the studies undertaken by Rennie and Fraser in attempting to relieve the symptoms of diabetes by making an extract of the principal islet from teleost fishes (including monkfish and wolf fish) landed at Aberdeen Fish Market. In most cases the extract was given by mouth but in one by injection - and the experiments were abandoned after no benefit was apparent. We now know that any insulin given by mouth would be destroyed by digestion and it is likely that impurities in the extract would have made the injected version too irritant. However, with improved techniques in later years useful insulin was made from fish pancreas - and so Rennie and Fraser were indeed on the right tracks to finding insulin years before the Toronto studies." alt="Rennie and Fraser's paper"></a>
<a id="f29" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/5_banting_best_and_dog.jpg" ><img src="images/small/5_banting_best_and_dog.jpg" title="This picture shows summer student Charles Best with Frederick Banting on the roof of the Medical Building in Toronto in the summer of 1921 with one of their experimental dogs." alt="Banting, Best and a dog"></a>
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<a id="f30" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/1_collip_at_the_lab_bench.jpg" ><img src="images/small/1_collip_at_the_lab_bench.jpg" title="Although Collip, on a visiting scholarship from Alberta, did not formally join the insulin team until December, he quickly made some major contributions without which the Toronto insulin venture may never have succeeded. He developed a rabbit model for testing the potency of serial batches of extract. He performed the study that showed the extract could restore glycogen deposition in the liver thus showing it corrected more of the abnormalities of diabetes than just lowering blood glucose. However, his single main success was in using serial alcohol extractions of pancreatic extract as advised by Macleod. Painstakingly working through varying concentrations of alcohol to remove impurities, he eventually succeeded in producing the purest form yet when using 95% alcohol. It was Collip's preparation that was used in the first successful trial of Toronto extract on 23rd January, 1922." alt="Collip in the laboratory"></a>
<a id="f31" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2_first_presentation.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2_first_presentation.jpg" title="The picture shows the outline of the first presentation made by the Toronto group at the American Physiological Society meeting held at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut on the 2nd last day of 1921. Most of the important people in diabetes research in North America were present and Macleod, who at the time was President of the Society, chaired the session. Banting was an unaccomplished public speaker and by his own admission did not present the results well. As was typical of such scientific meetings, his claims attracted some robust questioning from highly experienced members of the audience who had clearly not been fully convinced of their significance. Macleod, who knew the science far better than Banting, came to his aid and dealt with most of the questions and criticisms. Banting felt rather inadequate and humiliated afterwards and his paranoia grew about Macleod's interventions being motivated by a desire to steal Banting's glory - rather than an erudite attempt to promote the potential importance of this latest work, and protect his hapless and inexperienced colleague." alt="First presentation on Toronto dog research"></a>
<a id="f34" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3c_leonard_thomson_the_first_person_teated_with_insulin.jpg" ><img src="images/small/3c_leonard_thomson_the_first_person_teated_with_insulin.jpg" title="Although there is no surviving picture of this young man before he became the first person to receive the Toronto pancreas extract, this picture, showing a handsome young man gives no indication what had gone before. Diabetes was diagnosed in 1919 and by late 1921, 14-year old Leonard was described as 'skin and bone', weighing under 30kg when admitted to hospital. He was the first patient to be given an extract prepared by Banting and Best on 11th January, 1922 with 7.5 ml injected into each buttock. Despite a modest, temporary reduction in blood and urine sugar, there was no improvement in his condition and an abscess developed at the site of one injection; this trial had failed. By the morning of 23rd January, Collip's better-refined and more potent extract was ready for trial and this time the sugar in the blood and urine fell dramatically and the patient soon felt much better. This was the first successful application of the research in clinical practice and paved the way for the Toronto team giving useful insulin to the world." alt="Leonard Thompson"></a>
<a id="f32" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3a_early_patient_before_and_after_starting_insulin.jpg" ><img src="images/small/3a_early_patient_before_and_after_starting_insulin.jpg" title="This picture shows the remarkable change from emaciation and hopelessness to robust health within 4 months of starting on insulin treatment for diabetes." alt="An early patient, before and after insulin"></a>
<a id="f33" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3b_early_patient_before_and_after_8_weeks_on_insulin.jpg" ><img src="images/small/3b_early_patient_before_and_after_8_weeks_on_insulin.jpg" title="This even more remarkable pair of pictures shows a thoroughly miserable, wasted child showing a dramatic improvement within 2 months of commencing insulin treatment." alt="An early patient, before and after insulin"></a>
<a id="f35" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/4_first_publication_on_insulin.jpg" ><img src="images/small/4_first_publication_on_insulin.jpg" title="Within about a month of Leonard Thompson receiving Collip's extract, enough progress had been made with its use to permit preparation of the first paper on the successful use of a pancreatic extract to treat diabetes claiming its unquestionable value in treating at least some phases of diabetes in man. The paper's authors included Banting, Best, Collip and two of the practising physicians, Campbell and Fletcher, on whose patients the early trials had been conducted. To ensure early publication - and perhaps to underline Canada's place in this great discovery - the manuscript was sent to the Canadian Medical Association Journal in which it was published by 22nd March." alt="First published paper on Toronto 'insulin'"></a>
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<a id="f36" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/1_first_presentation_to_aap_by_macleod.jpg" ><img src="images/small/1_first_presentation_to_aap_by_macleod.jpg" title="This is the title and authors of a presentation made by Professor Macleod to the American Association of Physicians' meeting held in Washington. This presentation, made on 3rd May 1922 (exactly 50 weeks after Banting had started working on pancreatic extracts in Macleod's laboratory) was effectively the first official scientific announcement to medical practitioners of the effective new treatment for diabetes developed in Toronto. Macleod delivered the paper - and was the only member of the Toronto team who attended the meeting. The paper described the various stages of the research, giving due credit to the work of all contributors, and included reports of the spectacular improvements in the early diabetes cases treated. Highly respected authorities in the audience declared that the Toronto group had produced evidence that they had, indeed, isolated a pancreatic extract - henceforth known as insulin - which would herald a new era in diabetes research and treatment; the audience gave a standing ovation!" alt="The first conference presentation on insulin, May 1922"></a>
<a id="f37" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/1a_first_uk_paper_on_insulin.jpg" ><img src="images/small/1a_first_uk_paper_on_insulin.jpg" title="This is a picture of the front page of the first article on insulin published in the United Kingdom. In late September 1922, the British Medical Research Council had sent Henry Dale, Head of Biochemistry & Pharmacology in its National Institute for Medical Research to visit Macleod's Department. Dale and a colleague were able to assess at first hand this acclaimed new treatment for diabetes and to find out about the issues surrounding its large scale production. Dale returned from Toronto with Macleod's manuscript on Insulin and Diabetes at the end of October and the subject was considered of sufficiently great importance to be published in the British Medical Journal the following week. Dale's enthusiasm for insulin following his visit to Toronto also led to the BMRC accepting the University of Toronto's offer of the patent for insulin production in the UK as arranged by Macleod. The BMRC conducted it's own trials ofinsulin to show its safety and efficacy before issuing a declaration of the approval of insulin as a treatment for diabetes on 21st of April 1923. " alt="The first paper on insulin published in the UK, Nov 1922"></a>
<a id="f38" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2_nobel_citation_1923.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2_nobel_citation_1923.jpg" title="This document records the joint award of the 1923 Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology to Macleod and Banting. It was unusual for research conducted so recently to attract this accolade - but the discovery of clinically useful insulin was quickly hailed as one of the greatest ever medical breakthroughs. There was much controversy at the time and afterwards about just (and unjust) rewards. Banting was so incensed at Macleod's award that he almost refused the prize; he decided to share the prize money with Best. Macleod shared his prize money with Collip. Of the Toronto team, only Banting and Macleod had been nominated for the award. Futhermore, while the Nobel rules allowed awards to be shared, this could be by a maximum of three people. Banting's enduring bitterness related to the fact that he never really understood the relatively modest contribution he personally made to the overall process of the discovery of insulin. In his authoritative book on the subject, Professor Bliss suggests that all four of the 'main players' deserve a share of the credit and that it is unlikely that useful insulin would have been discovered in that place and at that time without the contributions of each of them." alt="The 1923 Nobel citation"></a>
<a id="f39" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2a_macleods_nobel_medal.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2a_macleods_nobel_medal.jpg" title="This photograph of the obverse ('heads') side of Macleod's gold medal features the image of Alfred Nobel (1833-96) a Swedish inventor, chemist, engineer, arms manufacturer, businessman and philanthropist who is said to have made much of his fortune from his invention of dynamite. Not wishing to be remembered as one who was so prominent in supply of guns and military explosives, he bequeathed considerable sums of money for a series of annual Nobel prizes in physics, chemistry, medicine or physiology, literature and services to international fraternity (the Nobel Peace prize). Nobel prizes were initially awarded in 1901." alt="Macleod's Nobel medal"></a>
<a id="f40" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2b_macleods_nobel_medal.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2b_macleods_nobel_medal.jpg" title="This photograph shows the reverse ('tails') side of Macleod's Nobel gold medal. The image shows a character known as 'the Genius of Medicine' with a book in her lap collecting water pouring from a rock to quench a sick girl's thirst. This depiction is particularly poignant in relation to insulin since its discovery has saved the lives of those who would be suffering from extreme thirst as a main feature of diabetes. The Latin inscription, adapted from Virgil's Aeneid, translates to: 'It is beneficial to have improved life through discovered arts'. The name of the recipient and year of award, in Roman numerals, are also shown. Macleod bequeathed this medal to the University of Aberdeen." alt="Macleod's Nobel medal (reverse)"></a>
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<a id="f41" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/jjr_macleod_portrait.jpg" ><img src="images/small/jjr_macleod_portrait.jpg" title="This is a portrait photograph of Professor JJR Macleod from about the time that he returned to the University of Aberdeen in 1928 to the post of Regius Professor of Physiology based at Marischal College. His return marked the 30th anniversary of the completion of his medical degree." alt="JJR Macleod circa 1928"></a>
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<a id="f42" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/4_prof_ja_macwilliam.jpg" ><img src="images/small/4_prof_ja_macwilliam.jpg" title="Professor John Alexander MacWilliam (1857-1937), a farmer's son from Kiltarlity near Inverness, graduated in Medicine at the University of Aberdeen in 1880. He worked successively in posts in Edinburgh, London and then on cardiac physiology research studies in Leipzig. He returned to Aberdeen to write his MD thesis on heart muscle, graduating with highest honours in 1882. After 4 more years research at University College Hospital, London, he was appointed Regius Professor at the Institutes of Medicine in the University of Aberdeen when aged only 29. His researches into cardiac physiology are regarded as being ahead of their time - implying such things as cardiac arrhythmia as a cause of sudden death, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, electric shock therapy as a means of correcting rhythm disorders and cardiac pacing for slow heartbeat; all of these were applied to clinical management of cardiac cases decades after he proposed them. On taking up post in Aberdeen he continued research into the heart, blood pressure and blood vessels and became increasingly involved in teaching. JJR Macleod was one of his most successful students whose career in academic physiology - including his early scholarship studies in Leipzig - are likely to have been influenced by MacWilliam's mentorship. It is also quite likely that MacWilliam would have encouraged the appointment of Macleod as his successor as professor of Physiology in Aberdeen when he retired at the age of 70." alt="Professor JA MacWilliam"></a>
<a id="f43" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/5_p_and_j_13_april_1928.jpg" ><img src="images/small/5_p_and_j_13_april_1928.jpg" title="This image shows an article cut out of the Press and Journal on 13th April, 1928 and held in the Aberdeen Central Library archives. The article shows a number of things, not least the perceived importance of a senior university appointment in the city. It gives a fairly comprehensive history of Macleod's background and achievements and quite clearly describes Macleod's involvement in the discovery of insulin and resulting award of a Nobel prize (only 5 years earlier). The existence of this comprehensive article shows that news of Macleod's international fame was out there - in the main city newspaper - at the time of his return to Aberdeen. One can only wonder at how he has failed to become a widely recognised and well-remembered academic celebrity in the city where he grew up, was educated and eventually held a prestigious university appointment." alt="Press and Journal, April 1928"></a>
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<a id="f44" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/1_craigievar.jpg" ><img src="images/small/1_craigievar.jpg" title="This is an aerial photograph of the house, originally named 'Craigievar' that the Macleods lived in on its completion in 1930. Situated at the west end of Cults, a little way above the North Deeside Road and nowadays on Cairn Road, the Macleods had a hand in planning the property with its large garden and upper gallery room from which they could view the landscape up Deeside to the mountains beyond. The front of the house, where the Professor was to spend his final years, had some resemblance to their former home in Toronto. Mrs Macleod, a talented artist, had several of her own paintings among the many artworks hung around the property where she lived until her death in 1940. One of two further senior University of Aberdeen academics to subsequently own the property, Professor AS Douglas, who was Professor of Medicine (1970-85) and himself a distinguished researcher in blood clotting, provided a copy of the photograph to the local diabetes clinic. See also 52" alt="Craigievar, his house in Cults"></a>
<a id="f45" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/2_agsfp_dinner.jpg" ><img src="images/small/2_agsfp_dinner.jpg" title="This is a picture of some of the company at the annual dinner of the Aberdeen Grammar School Former Pupils' Club on 1st November 1930 when Professor Macleod (front left) was club president. His guest that evening, Robert Cleghorn, (not in the picture) was a lecturer in Physiology doing research in Macleod's department at Marischal College. Cleghorn was a native of Toronto and graduate of its university; he returned to medical practice in Canada, subsequently specialising in psychiatry. He ended his career as professor of psychiatry at McGill University in Montreal." alt="Aberdeen Grammar School Former pupils dinner"></a>
<a id="f46" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/3_jjr_macleod_last_picture.jpg" ><img src="images/small/3_jjr_macleod_last_picture.jpg" title="This is the last known photograph of Professor Macleod taken at home in Cults not long before he died in 1935 aged only 58. Still neatly turned out in his collar, tie and three-piece suit, he has clearly aged and his hands show the characteristic swelling of his arthritis." alt="The last photograph"></a>
<a id="f47" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/4_p_and_j_18th_march_1935.jpg" ><img src="images/small/4_p_and_j_18th_march_1935.jpg" title="This newspaper cutting from the Press & Journal of Monday, 18th March, 1935 is filed in the Aberdeen Central Library. It reports the deaths on the previous Saturday of two university professors, JJR Macleod, Professor of Physiology and A Mackenzie Stuart, Professor of Law. It is of note that the sub-heading reminds readers of Macleod's involvement in the discovery of insulin." alt="Press article announcing death"></a>
<a id="f48" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/5_p_and_j_20th_march_1935.jpg" ><img src="images/small/5_p_and_j_20th_march_1935.jpg" title="This headline is from another newspaper cutting in the Press & Journal filed in the Aberdeen Central Library. Dated Wednesday 20th March, 1935 it gives an account of the joint funeral for Professors Macleod and Stuart held the previous day at King's College Chapel. As well as describing the ceremony it lists the names (and affiliations where appropriate) of mourners and of those who sent floral tributes. It records that following the service, the coffins went separately for burial, Macleod's to Allenvale Cemetery." alt="Press coverage of funeral"></a>
<a id="f49" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/6_gravestone_in_allenvale_cemetery.jpg" ><img src="images/small/6_gravestone_in_allenvale_cemetery.jpg" title="Macleod's grave is located in Allenvale Cemetery, Aberdeen - just across Great Southern Road from Duthie Park. It is on the upper terrace on the south side overlooking the River Dee, and in the 2nd row of head stones facing the river, a little way 'upstream' of the (locked) gate on Riverside Drive. The stone bears a traditional medical emblem: a representation of the serpent-entwined Rod of Asclepius (Greek God of Healing). As well as recording Mrs Macleod's burial there 5 years later, it clearly bears the message - surely unknown to the great majority of Aberdonians - that this is the grave of a Co-Discoverer of Insulin. The paint in the lettering cut in the granite was badly weathered when, in the late 1980s, the local branch of the British Diabetic Association (now Diabetes UK) arranged for it to be restored. This picture taken in 2019 perhaps suggests that it is time for a further freshen-up. Incidentally, five lairs to the left, is the headstone of Dr Thomas Fraser (1872 - 1951), Macleod's medical school classmate and friend who had tried to treat diabetes with fish insulin in the early 1900s." alt="JJR Macleod's gravestone in Allenvale cemetery"></a>
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<h2>Later Years</h2>
<h3>The later Toronto years - 1923 to 1928</h3>
<p>Macleod continued his work as a teacher and administrator in the University of Toronto, as an author and as a productive physiologist, including further research on insulin action and the potential of using fish insulin. <em id="41">However by 1928</em>, perhaps having tolerated as much as he could of Banting's jibes, he accepted and invitation to return to his first university to take over the Regius Chair in Physiology in Aberdeen, replacing his own teacher, <em id="42">J A MacWilliam</em> on his retirement.
<h3>1928 return to Aberdeen</h3>
<p>The return of a famous Nobel Prize winner to his old university was hailed in the <em id="43">local press</em>. He was involved in developments in physiology and medical training in the university. New research in his own department, and in association with the Rowett Institute or the Torry Fishery Research Station, included studies on glycogen in liver and muscle, control of insulin secretion, absorption of nutrients and effects of temperature on metabolism in fish. He gave numerous lectures - including during a 2 month sabbatical in Baltimore as visiting professor of physiology at Johns Hopkins University in 1933. He welcomed many visiting researchers to his Aberdeen department from places including India, China, North America and Europe. He served on many local and national committees and was Dean of the Medical Faculty in Aberdeen, 1930-34. He was elected fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1930. He also continued with scientific writing and editorial duties completing the 7th edition of Physiology and Modern Medicine in the winter of 1934/35. </p>
<h3>Failing health and final days</h3>
<p>First staying in Woodlands, Cults he supervised the building of a new house called <em id="44">Craigievar</em> at the western extremity of Cults where he and his wife moved on its completion in 1930. Outside pursuits included membership of the MacDonald Trust Art Committee of the Art Gallery in Aberdeen, Associate Membership of the Aberdeen Medico-Chirurgical Society and Presidency of Aberdeen <em id="45">Grammar School Former Pupils Club</em>. Unfortunately not long after his return to Aberdeen he suffered from increasingly disabling arthritis which, by the middle of 1933, would greatly curtail his ability to <em id="46">work and to travel</em>. Latterly limited to his writing while being cared for and working from home, he died of cardiorespiratory problems on Saturday 16th March 1935 aged just 58 years. This was major news in the <em id="47">local press</em>, not least because a fellow University professor died suddenly on the same day. <em id="48">A detailed account of their joint funeral</em> at King's College appeared in the Press and Journal a few days later. Macleod was buried in <em id="49">Allenvale Cemetery</em> overlooking the River Dee.</p>
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<h2>JJR Macleod's legacy</h2>
<h3>Macleod remembered - At last!</h3>
<p>It is a great surprise to many that Macleod and his stellar achievements are so little known in Aberdeen and beyond. There can be no doubt that Banting's campaigning in Toronto against Macleod was a major contributor to this - at least until his own death in a plane crash in Newfoundland in 1941. Following that, Charles Best, who had become an eminent physiologist in his own right, continued to promote the story of how 'Banting & Best' had made the important discovery. In fact, it has been described how he even favoured a Best & Banting version of their importance! Macleod's achievements were not remembered or celebrated in the University where he had first studied and had later been Professor of Physiology. That changed substantially in 1982 with the publication of 'The Discovery of Insulin' by Michael Bliss. Proffesor Bliss reviewed many detailed documents pertaining to the 1921 researches and met people who had known or worked with the main players, and some of the first patients who had survived almost 60 years as a result of insulin treatment. While acknowledging the contributions of the four main players in Toronto, Bliss's book clearly shows how history has viewed Macleod unfairly and how his unrivalled knowledge and scientific wisdom guided this group, at this time, to realise the elusive, life-saving diabetes treatment. Professor Bliss spent his remaining 35 years campaigning to restore Macleod's reputation. He succeeded in Canada with the naming of the JJR Macleod Auditorium at Toronto University Medical Science Building and in having Macleod inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame. <em id="50">Professor Bliss</em> visited Aberdeen on three occasions to give talks about Macleod's work and he corresponded with local diabetologist, <em id="51">Dr Michael Williams</em>, who published a biography of Macleod in 1993. On Professor Bliss's last visit to Aberdeen on the 1st of November 2013, he and Dr Williams paid a visit to <em id="52">Macleod's former home in Cults</em><em id="53"> </em>. Later in the day <em id="54">Professor Bliss performed the official opening</em> of the <em id="55">JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism</em> on Aberdeen's Foresterhill campus <em id="56">before a gathering</em> of current and former clinic staff and senior NHS Grampian management.</p>
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<a id="f50" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/7_professor_michael_bliss.jpg" ><img src="images/small/7_professor_michael_bliss.jpg" title="Michael Bliss (1941 - 2017) was Professor of Canadian History in the University of Toronto. He had long been aware of the discovery of insulin in Toronto - and of the lasting controversies around it. After the last of the main players died (Charles Best, 1978) he undertook a professional historian's detailed study of the subject unearthing many records, documents and even laboratory notebooks. He added to his information sources by interviewing surviving associates and colleagues of the principal researchers - and some of the earliest recipients of insulin who had lived for more than 50 years as a direct result of the great discovery. He was then able to piece together the detailed history of what happened in Toronto in 1921-22 in his highly acclaimed best-seller, 'The Discovery of Insulin' first published in 1982. He followed this up in 1984 with his biography of Frederick Banting - the most intriguing character in the story who never understood how limited his own contributions were and then fell out with Macleod alleging that the professor had tried to steal his glory. Michael Bliss concluded that Banting, Best, Collip and Macleod all deserved recognition for their respective contributions to the discovery. However, he was very clear that history had been unfair to Macleod and spent the following decades attempting to restore Macleod to his rightful place in medical history. He made three visits to Aberdeen to give lectures on Macleod." alt="Professor Michael Bliss"></a>
<a id="f51" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/8_dr_mj_williams_and_his_1993_biography.jpg" ><img src="images/small/8_dr_mj_williams_and_his_1993_biography.jpg" title="Dr Michael Williams is an Aberdonian who, like Macleod, attended Aberdeen Grammar School and studied Medicine at the University of Aberdeen. He became a Consultant in Diabetes at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary in 1968 and was the senior doctor in the Grampian Adult Diabetes Service for 10 years from 1984 until his retirement. Somewhat surprisingly, he first heard about Macleod and his contribution to the discovery of insulin on reading Michael Bliss's book in 1982 - despite the fact he had studied in Macleod's former department over 30 years before, and within 15 years of the latter's death while Professor of Physiology at Marischal College. Dr Williams undertook several years of detailed research into Macleod in Aberdeen, London and North America. With the encouragement of Professor Bliss, he wrote a biography of Macleod, published by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1993. The picture shows Dr Williams and the front cover of his book." alt="Dr MJ Williams and his Macleod biography"></a>
<a id="f52" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/9_professor_m_bliss_dr_mj_williams_and_professor_neva_haites.jpg" ><img src="images/small/9_professor_m_bliss_dr_mj_williams_and_professor_neva_haites.jpg" title="This picture was taken on 1st November 2013 outside Cragievar, Macleod's last home in Cults. Professor Bliss, on what was to be his last visit to Scotland, is on the left. The current Owner, Professor Neva Haites, and Dr Michael Williams are on the right. The plaque is shown in more detail in the next picture." alt="The Macleod commemorative plaque"></a>
<a id="f53" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/9a_memorial_plaque.jpg" ><img src="images/small/9a_memorial_plaque.jpg" title="This is a picture showing detail of the Commemorative Plaque outside Macleod's last home, 'Craigievar', in Cairn Road Cults. The plaque, installed by Aberdeen City Council, records Macleod's achievements as a co-discoverer of insulin and a Nobel Prize winner." alt="Memorial Plaque"></a>
<a id="f54" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/10a_professor_bliss_1st_nov_2013.jpg" ><img src="images/small/10a_professor_bliss_1st_nov_2013.jpg" title="Professor Michael Bliss from Toronto, a great champion of Macleod's achievements, was delighted to accept the invitation of the local clinical team to attend the naming ceremony at the JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism at Foresterhill on 1st November 2013. The picture shows Professor Bliss unveiling the commemorative plaque which has since been placed on the wall in the foyer of the building where it can be viewed by those visiting outpatient clinics." alt="JJR Macleod Centre, Aberdeen"></a>
<a id="f55" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/10_jjr_macleod_centre_for_diabetes_endocrinology_and_metabolism.jpg" ><img src="images/small/10_jjr_macleod_centre_for_diabetes_endocrinology_and_metabolism.jpg" title="This is a picture of the David Anderson building situated across Foresterhill Road to the west of the main Aberdeen Royal Infirmary campus. The main regional outpatient services in diabetes, retinal screening and endocrinology relocated here in 2013 occupying most of the building. As a local tribute to Aberdeen's insulin hero, the relevant area was formally named 'The JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism'." alt="JJR Macleod Centre for Diabetes Endocrinology and Metabolism"></a>
<a id="f56" class="image-popup-fit-width" href="images/10b_opening_of_centre.jpg" ><img src="images/small/10b_opening_of_centre.jpg" title="This picture shows the invited company who attended the naming ceremony in the foyer of the JJR Macleod Centre. It includes Chief Executive and Medical Director of NHS Grampian and representatives of administrative, dietetic, medical, nursing and podiatry staff working in the centre's clinics. All of Aberdeen's surviving diabetes specialists attended (plus 5 senior medical trainees who have since gone on to join the local Consultant teams); retired consultants Drs Lilian Murchison and Michael Williams are seated in the centre of the front row." alt="Macleod Centre official opening"></a>
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<h2>The JJR Macleod trail</h2>
<p>The JJR Macleod trail guides you round all the places in Aberdeen that are associated with JJR Macleod. You can also <a href="https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2021-09/Insulin%20Trail%20final.pdf" title="Insulin Trail" target="_blank">download an Insulin Trail PDF tour</a>, which has been created by Aberdeen Art Gallery & Museums.</p>
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<h2>Film: 100 Years Ago, a Miracle Drug Saved Millions of Children - and Created a Powerful Myth</h2>
<p>The 2018 documentary "100 Years Ago, a Miracle Drug Saved Millions of Children - and Created a Powerful Myth" produced by the Science Communication Lab, via YouTube</p>
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<h2>About this website</h2>
<p>Content by K McHardy</p>
<p>Layout by A Gaskell</p>
<p>This website was created as part Aberdeen's celebration of 100 years of Insulin.</p>
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<h2>Get in touch</h2>
<p>how to get in touch... </p>
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<h4>Further reading...</h4>
<ul class="list-unstyled li-space-lg white">
<li><a class="white" href="https://insulinat100.org/" title="Insulin at 100" target="_blank">The Insulin at 100 website</a></li>
<li>The Discovery of Insulin, book by Michael Bliss from
<a class="white" href="https://www.waterstones.com/book/the-discovery-of-insulin/michael-bliss/alison-li/9781487529130" title="The Discovery of Insulin, by Michael Bliss, from Waterstones" target="_blank">Waterstones</a>,
<a class="white" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Discovery-Insulin-Michael-Bliss/dp/0226058999" title="The Discovery of Insulin, by Michael Bliss, from Amazon" target="_blank">Amazon</a>
and
<a class="white" href="https://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/SearchResults?isbn=0802083447" title="The Discovery of Insulin, by Michael Bliss, from AbeBooks" target="_blank">AbeBooks</a>.
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<li><a class="white" href="https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/AAGM/whats-aberdeen-art-galleries-and-museums/100-years-insulin-aberdeen-story" title="100 Years of Insulin: The Aberdeen Story " target="_blank">100 Years of Insulin: The Aberdeen Story</a> - Online Exhibition by Aberdeen Art Gallery & Museums</li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2021-09/Insulin%20Trail%20final.pdf" title="Insulin Trail" target="_blank">Insulin Trail</a> - A PDF tour by Aberdeen Art Gallery & Museums </li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.jjrmacleodmemorial.co.uk" title="JR Macleod Memorial Statue Society" target="_blank">JR Macleod Memorial Statue Society</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1923/macleod/biographical/" title="Nobel prize website" target="_blank">JJR Macleod's bio on the Nobel prize website</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/opinion/3229444/diabetes-insulin-treatment-john-macleod-pioneer-opinion/" title="Press and Journal article" target="_blank">It's time we celebrate the unsung pioneer of insulin treatment</a> - Press and Journal, 15/6/2021</li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/news/aberdeen/3229318/aberdeen-doctor-who-became-champion-for-diabetes-patients-around-the-world/" title="Press and Journal article" target="_blank">Aberdeen doctor who became 'champion' for diabetes patients around the world</a> - Press and Journal, 14/6/2021</li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/nostalgia/2863576/aberdeen-university-alumnus-john-macleods-pioneering-work-brought-us-the-miracle-of-insulin/" title="Press and Journal article" target="_blank">Aberdeen University alumnus John Macleod's pioneering work brought us the miracle of insulin</a> - Press and Journal, 2/2/2021</li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/stories/the-airbrushing-from-history-of-the-aberdeen-insulin-pioneer/index.html" title="The airbrushing from history of the Aberdeen insulin pioneer" target="_blank">The airbrushing from history of the Aberdeen insulin pioneer</a> an article by Jo Milne of Aberdeen University</li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/stories/the-aberdeen-father-of-diabetes/index.html" title="The Aberdeen 'father of diabetes' whose own life was saved thanks to the work of another University graduate" target="_blank">The Aberdeen 'father of diabetes' whose own life was saved thanks to the work of another University graduate</a> an article by Jo Milne and Dr Ken McHardy, for Aberdeen University</li>
<li><a class="white" href="1111" title="https://definingmomentscanada.ca/stories/profiles-before-and-after-insulin-john-james-rickard-macleod-1876-1935/" target="_blank">Profiles, Before and After Insulin: John James Rickard Macleod (1876-1935)</a> by Christopher J. Rutty.</li>
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<h4>More about Diabetes...</h4>
<ul class="list-unstyled li-space-lg white">
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.nhsgrampiandiabetes.scot.nhs.uk/" title="Diabetes in Grampian" target="_blank">Diabetes in Grampian</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.diabetes.org.uk/" title="Diabetes UK" target="_blank">Diabetes UK</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diabetes/" title="About Diabetes" target="_blank">About Diabetes</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://worlddiabetesday.org/" title="World Diabetes Day" target="_blank">World Diabetes Day</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.idf.org/" title="International Diabetes Federation " target="_blank">International Diabetes Federation</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/acdc/" title="Aberdeen University" target="_blank">Aberdeen Cardiovascular & Diabetes Centre</a></li>
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<h4>More about Aberdeen...</h4>
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<li><a class="white" href="http://www.nhsgrampian.org" title="NHS Grampian" target="_blank">NHS Grampian</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/smmsn/" title="Aberdeen University" target="_blank">Aberdeen University School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="http://www.aagm.co.uk/" title="Aberdeen Art Gallery and Museums" target="_blank">Aberdeen Art Gallery & Museums</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="http://www.ghat-art.org.uk/" title="GHAT" target="_blank">GHAT: Grampian Hospitals Art Trust</a></li>
<li><a class="white" href="https://online.aberdeencity.gov.uk/Services/CommemorativePlaque/PlaqueList.aspx" title="List of Commemorative Plaques in Aberdeen" target="_blank">List of Commemorative Plaques in Aberdeen</a></li>
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