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Biological_classification.html
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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en"><span dir="auto">Biological classification</span></h1>
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<div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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<td class="mbox-text" style=""><span class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article or section be <a href="Wikipedia3AMerging" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging" title="Wikipedia:Merging">merged</a> with <i><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy (biology)</a></i>. (<a href="Talk3ABiological_classification" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Biological_classification" title="Talk:Biological classification">Discuss</a>) <small><i>Proposed since April 2013.</i></small> </span></td>
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<div class="dablink">"Scientific classification" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Scientific_classification_(disambiguation)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_classification_(disambiguation)" title="Scientific classification (disambiguation)">Scientific classification (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major <a href="Taxonomic_rank.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic ranks</a>. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.</div>
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<td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em;">Part of a series on</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="Evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolutionary biology</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0;;"><a href="File3ACollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg/200px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg/200px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg.png" width="200" height="132" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg/300px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg/400px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg.png 2x" /></a>
<div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;padding:0 0 0.8em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;font-size:90%;;">Diagrammatic representation of the<br />
<a href="Genetic_divergence" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_divergence" title="Genetic divergence">divergence</a> of modern <a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic<br />
groups</a> from their <a href="Common_descent" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common ancestor</a>.</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;">Key topics</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="Introduction_to_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Common_descent" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Evidence_of_common_descent" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of common descent</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;">Processes and outcomes</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="Population_genetics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Genetic_diversity" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Variation</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Mutation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>
<li><a href="Natural_selection" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Adaptation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li>
<li><a href="Polymorphism_(biology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Genetic_drift" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li>
<li><a href="Gene_flow.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Speciation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li>
<li><a href="Adaptive_radiation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Co-operation_(evolution)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-operation_(evolution)" title="Co-operation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li>
<li><a href="Coevolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Divergent_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li>
<li><a href="Convergent_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Parallel_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="Extinction" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;">Natural history</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="Abiogenesis" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_history_of_life" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Evolutionary history of life">History of life</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Timeline_of_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" title="Timeline of evolution" class="mw-redirect">Timeline of evolution</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Human_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="Phylogenetic_tree" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Biodiversity" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li>
<li><a href="Biogeography" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Classification</strong></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Cladistics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Transitional_fossil" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Extinction_event" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;">History of evolutionary theory</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;">
<div class="hlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="Transmutation_of_species" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Charles_Darwin" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li>
<li><i><a href="On_the_Origin_of_Species" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="Modern_evolutionary_synthesis" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Modern evolutionary synthesis">Modern synthesis</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="History_of_molecular_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_biology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><a href="History_of_paleontology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="Timeline_of_paleontology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;">Fields and applications</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;">
<div class="plainlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="Applications_of_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="Biosocial_criminology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li>
<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_aesthetics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_computation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_ecology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_economics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_ethics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_game_theory" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_linguistics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_neuroscience" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_physiology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Experimental_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li>
<li>
<div class="hlist" style="margin-left:0em;">
<div class="plainlist">
<ul style="">
<li style=""><a href="Phylogenetics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li>
<li style=""><a href="Paleovirology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleovirology" title="Paleovirology">Paleovirology</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li><a href="Selective_breeding" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li>
<li><a href="Systematics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li>
<li><a href="Universal_Darwinism" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
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<td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0;">
<div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;">Social implications</div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;">
<div class="plainlist">
<ul>
<li><a href="Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_effect_of_evolutionary_theory" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effect_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effect of evolutionary theory">Social effect</a></li>
<li><a href="Creation$E2$80$93evolution_controversy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="Creation–evolution controversy">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="Objections_to_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="Level_of_support_for_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;;">
<ul>
<li><img alt="Portal icon" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" width="16" height="13" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" /> <a href="Portal3AEvolutionary_biology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><img alt="Category" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" /> <a href="Category3AEvolutionary_biology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li>
<li><img alt="Book icon" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/16px-Office-book.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/16px-Office-book.svg.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/24px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/32px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" /> <a href="Book3AEvolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:Evolution" title="Book:Evolution">Book</a></li>
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<ul>
<li><a href="Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Related topics</a></li>
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<p><b>Biological classification</b>, or <b>scientific classification in biology</b>, is a method of <a href="Taxonomy.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy" class="mw-redirect">scientific taxonomy</a> used to group and <a href="Categorize" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorize" title="Categorize" class="mw-redirect">categorize</a> <a href="Organism" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> into groups such as <a href="Genus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> or <a href="Species.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. These groups are known as <b><a href="Taxon.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></b> (singular: <b>taxon</b>).</p>
<p>Modern biological classification has its root in the work of <a href="Carolus_Linnaeus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus" title="Carolus Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect">Carolus Linnaeus</a>, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the <a href="Charles_Darwin" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwinian</a> principle of <a href="Common_descent" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Descent" title="Common Descent" class="mw-redirect">common descent</a>. With the introduction of the <a href="Cladistic" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistic" title="Cladistic" class="mw-redirect">cladistic</a> method in the late 20th century, <a href="Phylogenetic_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_taxonomy" title="Phylogenetic taxonomy" class="mw-redirect">phylogenetic taxonomy</a> in which organisms are grouped based purely on <a href="Inference" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferred</a> evolutionary relatedness, ignoring morphological similarity, has become common in some areas of biology.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="Molecular_phylogenetics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">Molecular phylogenetics</a>, which uses <a href="DNA_sequences" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequences" title="DNA sequences" class="mw-redirect">DNA sequences</a> as data, has also driven many recent revisions and is likely to continue doing so. Biological classification belongs to the science of <a href="Systematics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">biological systematics</a>.</p>
<table id="toc" class="toc">
<tr>
<td>
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Biological_types"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Biological types</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Taxonomic_ranks"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Taxonomic ranks</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Early_systems"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Early systems</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Ancient_through_medieval_times"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient through medieval times</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Renaissance_through_Age_of_Reason"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance through Age of Reason</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Early_methodists"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Early methodists</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Linnaean_taxonomy"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Linnaean taxonomy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Modern_system"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Modern system</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Kingdoms_and_domains"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kingdoms and domains</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Authorities_.28author_citation.29"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Authorities (author citation)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Globally_unique_identifiers_for_names"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Globally unique identifiers for names</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
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<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Definition">Definition</span></h2>
<p>Classification has been defined by <a href="Ernst_Mayr" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> as "The arrangement of entities in a hierarchical series of nested classes, in which similar or related classes at one hierarchical level are combined comprehensively into more inclusive classes at the next higher level." A class is defined as "a collection of similar entities".<sup id="cite_ref-Mayr_Bock_2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayr_Bock_2002-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> (Note that the word "<a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>" is used quite separately for one of the levels in the biological hierarchy.)</p>
<p>Biological classification is based on shared descent from their nearest common ancestor. Accordingly, the important attributes or traits for biological classification are '<a href="Homology_(biology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a>', i.e., inherited from common ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> These must be separated from traits that are <a href="Analogy_(biology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy_(biology)" title="Analogy (biology)">analogous</a>. Thus birds and bats both have the power of flight, but this similarity is not used to classify them into a taxon (a "class"), because it is not inherited from a common ancestor. In spite of all the other differences between them, the fact that bats and whales both feed their young on milk is one of the features used to classify both of them as mammals, since it was inherited from a common ancestor(s).</p>
<p>Determining whether similarities are homologous or analogous can be difficult. Thus until recently, <a href="Golden_mole" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_mole" title="Golden mole">golden moles</a>, found in South Africa, were placed in the same taxon (<a href="Insectivore" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">insectivores</a>) as <a href="Northern_hemisphere" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> <a href="Mole_(animal)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(animal)" title="Mole (animal)">moles</a>, on the basis of morphological and behavioural similarities. However, molecular analysis has shown that they are not closely related, so that their similarities must be due to <a href="Convergent_evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> and not to shared descent, and so should not be used to place them in the same taxon.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biological types">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Biological_types">Biological types</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="Type_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Type_(biology)" title="Type (biology)">Type (biology)</a></div>
<p>The scientific names of taxa are formally attached to a <b>type</b>, which is one particular specimen (or in some cases a group of specimens, or in some cases an illustration) of the organism, preserved in a museum. The type is the example that serves to anchor or centralize the defining features of each particular taxon.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Taxonomic ranks">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Taxonomic_ranks">Taxonomic ranks</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="Taxonomic_rank.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></div>
<p>A classification as defined above is hierarchical. In a biological classification, <b>rank</b> is the level (the relative position) in a hierarchy. (Rarely, the term "taxonomic category" is used instead of rank.) The <i><a href="International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Zoological Nomenclature">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a></i> defines rank, in the nomenclatural sense, as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The level, for nomenclatural purposes, of a taxon in a taxonomic hierarchy (e.g., all families are for nomenclatural purposes at the same rank, which lies between superfamily and subfamily).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
<p>There are seven main ranks defined by the international <a href="Nomenclature_codes" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature_codes" title="Nomenclature codes">nomenclature codes</a>: <a href="Kingdom_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>, <a href="Phylum.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum/division</a>, <a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>, <a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a>, <a href="Family_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>, <a href="Genus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a>, <a href="Species.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. "<a href="Domain_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a>", a level above kingdom, has become popular in recent years, but has not been accepted into the codes. Ranks between the seven main ones can be produced by adding prefixes such as "super-", "sub-" or "infra-". Thus a subclass has a rank between class and order, a superfamily between order and family. There are slightly different ranks for zoology and for botany, including subdivisions such as <a href="Tribe_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Tribe_(biology)" title="Tribe (biology)">tribe</a>.</p>
<p>Ranks are somewhat arbitrary, but hope to encapsulate the diversity contained within a group—a rough measure of the number of diversifications that the group has been through.<sup id="cite_ref-Gingerich1987_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gingerich1987-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
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<td><a href="Superphylum.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Superphylum" title="Superphylum" class="mw-redirect">Superphylum/Superdivision</a></td>
<td><a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Superclass</a></td>
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<td><a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Superorder</a></td>
<td><a href="Superfamily_(zoology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Superfamily_(zoology)" title="Superfamily (zoology)" class="mw-redirect">Superfamily</a></td>
<td><a href="Supertribe.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Supertribe" title="Supertribe" class="mw-redirect">Supertribe</a></td>
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<td><b><a href="Kingdom_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom</a></b></td>
<td><b><a href="Phylum.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">Phylum/Division</a></b></td>
<td><b><a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Class</a></b></td>
<td><a href="Legion_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Legion_(biology)" title="Legion (biology)">Legion</a></td>
<td><b><a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Order</a></b></td>
<td><b><a href="Family_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Family</a></b></td>
<td><a href="Tribe_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Tribe_(biology)" title="Tribe (biology)"><b>Tribe</b></a></td>
<td><b><a href="Genus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">Genus</a></b></td>
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<td><a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Subclass</a></td>
<td><a href="Cohort_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Cohort_(biology)" title="Cohort (biology)" class="mw-redirect">Cohort</a></td>
<td><a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Suborder</a></td>
<td><a href="Subfamily.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Subfamily" title="Subfamily">Subfamily</a></td>
<td><a href="Subtribe.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Subtribe" title="Subtribe" class="mw-redirect">Subtribe</a></td>
<td><a href="Subgenus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Subgenus" title="Subgenus">Subgenus</a></td>
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<td><a href="Infraphylum.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Infraphylum" title="Infraphylum" class="mw-redirect">Infraphylum</a></td>
<td><a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Infraclass</a></td>
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<td><a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Infraorder</a></td>
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<td><a href="Class_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Parvclass</a></td>
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<td><a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Parvorder</a></td>
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<td><a href="Series_(botany).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Series_(botany)" title="Series (botany)">Series</a></td>
<td><a href="Variety_(botany).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Variety_(botany)" title="Variety (botany)">Variety</a></td>
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<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early systems">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Early_systems">Early systems</span></h2>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ancient through medieval times">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_through_medieval_times">Ancient through medieval times</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="File3AAristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/150px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/150px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" width="150" height="201" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/225px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/300px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" /></a>
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<a href="Aristotle.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, 384–322 BC.</div>
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<p>Current systems of classifying forms of <a href="Life" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> descend from the thought presented by the <a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a> philosopher <a href="Aristotle.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who published in his <a href="Metaphysics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> works the first known classification of everything whatsoever, or "being". This is the scheme that gave such words as "'substance", "species", and "genus", and was retained in modified and less general form by <a href="Linnaeus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Linnaeus" title="Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect">Linnaeus</a>.</p>
<p>Aristotle also studied animals and classified them according to method of reproduction, as did Linnaeus later with plants. Aristotle's animal classification was eventually made obsolete by additional knowledge and forgotten.</p>
<p>The philosophical classification, in brief, is as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> Primary <i>substance</i> is the individual being; for example, Peter, Paul, etc. Secondary substance is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%27%27predicate%27%27_(mathematical_logic)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="''predicate'' (mathematical logic) (page does not exist)">predicate</a> that can properly or characteristically be said of a class of primary substances; for example, man of Peter, Paul, etc. The characteristic must not be merely in the individual; for example, being skilled in grammar. Grammatical skill leaves most of Peter out and therefore is not characteristic of him. Similarly man (all of mankind) is not in Peter; rather, he is in man.</p>
<p><i>Species</i> is the secondary substance that is most proper to its individuals. The most characteristic thing that can be said of Peter is that Peter is a man. An identity is being postulated: "man" is equal to all its individuals and only those individuals. Members of a species differ only in number but are totally the same type.</p>
<p><i>Genus</i> is a secondary substance less characteristic of and more general than the species; for example, man is an animal, but not all animals are men. It is clear that a genus contains species. There is no limit to the number of Aristotelian genera that might be found to contain the species. Aristotle does not structure the genera into <a href="Phylum.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a>, class, etc., as the Linnaean classification does.</p>
<p>The secondary substance that distinguishes one species from another within a genus is the specific difference. Man can thus be comprehended as the sum of specific differences (the "differentiae" of biology) in less and less general categories. This sum is the definition; for example, man is an animate, sensate, rational substance. The most characteristic definition contains the species and the next most general genus: man is a rational animal. Definition is thus based on the unity problem: the species is but one yet has many differentiae.</p>
<p>The very top genera are the <a href="Categories_(Aristotle)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">categories</a>. There are ten: one of substance and nine of "accidents", universals that must be "in" a substance. Substances exist by themselves; accidents are only in them: quantity, quality, etc. There is no higher category, "being", because of the following problem, which was only solved in the <a href="Middle_Ages" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> by <a href="Thomas_Aquinas" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>: a specific difference is not characteristic of its genus. If man is a rational animal, then rationality is not a property of animals. Substance therefore cannot be a <i>kind</i> of being because it can have no specific difference, which would have to be <i>non</i>-being.</p>
<p>The problem of "being" occupied the attention of scholastics during the time of the Middle Ages. The solution of St. Thomas, termed the analogy of being, established the field of <a href="Ontology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, which received the better part of the publicity and also drew the line between philosophy and experimental science. The latter rose in the Renaissance from practical technique. Linnaeus, a classical scholar, combined the two on the threshold of the neo-classicist revival now called the <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.</p>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Renaissance through Age of Reason">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance_through_Age_of_Reason">Renaissance through Age of Reason</span></h3>
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Rhinoceros in Conrad Gesner's <i><a href="Historiae_animalium_(Gesner)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiae_animalium_(Gesner)" title="Historiae animalium (Gesner)">Historiae animalium</a></i>, 1551</div>
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<p>An important advance was made by the Swiss professor, <a href="Conrad_von_Gesner" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_von_Gesner" title="Conrad von Gesner" class="mw-redirect">Conrad von Gesner</a> (1516–1565). Gesner's work was a critical compilation of life known at the time.</p>
<p>The exploration of parts of the <a href="New_World" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> by Europeans produced large numbers of new plants and animals that needed descriptions and classification. The old systems made it difficult to study and locate all these new specimens within a collection and often the same plants or animals were given different names simply because there were too many species to keep track of. A system was needed that could group these specimens together so they could be found; the binomial system was developed based on <a href="Morphology_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> with groups having similar appearances. In the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th, careful study of animals commenced, which, directed first to familiar kinds, was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve as an anatomical basis for classification. Advances in using this knowledge to classify living beings bear a debt to the research of medical anatomists, such as <a href="Hieronymus_Fabricius" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_Fabricius" title="Hieronymus Fabricius">Fabricius</a> (1537–1619), <a href="Petrus_Severinus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus_Severinus" title="Petrus Severinus" class="mw-redirect">Petrus Severinus</a> (1580–1656), <a href="William_Harvey" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> (1578–1657), and <a href="Edward_Tyson" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Tyson" title="Edward Tyson">Edward Tyson</a> (1649–1708). Advances in classification due to the work of <a href="Entomologist" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologist" title="Entomologist" class="mw-redirect">entomologists</a> and the first <a href="Microscopist" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopist" title="Microscopist" class="mw-redirect">microscopists</a> is due to the research of people like <a href="Marcello_Malpighi" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a> (1628–1694), <a href="Jan_Swammerdam" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a> (1637–1680), and <a href="Robert_Hooke" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (1635–1702). <a href="Lord_Monboddo" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Monboddo" title="Lord Monboddo" class="mw-redirect">Lord Monboddo</a> (1714–1799) was one of the early abstract thinkers whose works illustrate the knowledge of species relationships and who foreshadowed the theory of <a href="Evolution" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early methodists">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Early_methodists">Early methodists</span></h3>
<p>Since late in the 15th century, a number of authors had become concerned with what they called <i>methodus,</i> (method). By method authors mean an arrangement of minerals, plants, and animals according to the principles of logical division. The term <i>Methodists</i> was coined by <a href="Carolus_Linnaeus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus" title="Carolus Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect">Carolus Linnaeus</a> in his <i>Bibliotheca Botanica</i> to denote the authors who care about the principles of classification (in contrast to the mere <i>collectors</i> who are concerned primarily with the description of plants paying little or no attention to their arrangement into genera, etc.). Important early Methodists were Italian philosopher, physician, and botanist <a href="Andrea_Caesalpino" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Caesalpino" title="Andrea Caesalpino" class="mw-redirect">Andrea Caesalpino</a>, English naturalist <a href="John_Ray" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a>, German physician and botanist <a href="Augustus_Quirinus_Rivinus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Quirinus_Rivinus" title="Augustus Quirinus Rivinus">Augustus Quirinus Rivinus</a>, and French physician, botanist, and traveller <a href="Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" title="Joseph Pitton de Tournefort">Joseph Pitton de Tournefort</a>.</p>
<p><a href="Andrea_Caesalpino" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Caesalpino" title="Andrea Caesalpino" class="mw-redirect">Andrea Caesalpino</a> (1519–1603) in his <i>De plantis libri XVI</i> (1583) proposed the first methodical arrangement of plants. On the basis of the structure of <a href="Trunk_(botany)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunk_(botany)" title="Trunk (botany)">trunk</a> and <a href="Fructification" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructification" title="Fructification">fructification</a> he divided plants into fifteen "higher genera".</p>
<p><a href="John_Ray" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (1627–1705) was an English naturalist who published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology. The approach he took to the classification of plants in his <a href="Historia_Plantarum" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Plantarum" title="Historia Plantarum">Historia Plantarum</a> was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived, either/or type system, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation.</p>
<p>Both Caesalpino and Ray used traditional plant names and thus, the name of a plant did not reflect its taxonomic position (e.g., even though the <a href="Apple" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apple</a> and the <a href="Peach" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">peach</a> belonged to different "higher genera" of John Ray's <i>methodus</i>, both retained their traditional names <i>Malus</i> and <i>Malus Persica</i> respectively). A further step was taken by Rivinus and Pitton de Tournefort who made <a href="Genus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> a distinct rank within taxonomic hierarchy and introduced the practice of naming the plants according to their genera.</p>
<p><a href="Augustus_Quirinus_Rivinus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Quirinus_Rivinus" title="Augustus Quirinus Rivinus">Augustus Quirinus Rivinus</a> (1652–1723), in his classification of plants based on the characters of the <a href="Flower" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a>, introduced the category of <a href="Order_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> (corresponding to the "higher" genera of John Ray and Andrea Caesalpino). He was the first to abolish the ancient division of plants into <a href="Herb" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a> and <a href="Tree" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> and insisted that the true method of division should be based on the parts of the <a href="Fructification" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructification" title="Fructification">fructification</a> alone. Rivinus extensively used <a href="Dichotomous_key" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomous_key" title="Dichotomous key" class="mw-redirect">dichotomous keys</a> to define both orders and genera. His method of naming plant species resembled that of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. The names of all plants belonging to the same genus should begin with the same word (generic name). In the genera containing more than one species the first species was named with generic name only, while the second, etc. were named with a combination of the generic name and a modifier (<i>differentia specifica</i>).</p>
<p><a href="Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" title="Joseph Pitton de Tournefort">Joseph Pitton de Tournefort</a> (1656–1708) introduced an even more sophisticated hierarchy of class, section, genus, and species. He was the first to use consistently the uniformly composed species names that consisted of a generic name and a many-worded diagnostic phrase <i>differentia specifica.</i> Unlike Rivinus, he used <i>differentiae</i> with all species of polytypic genera.</p>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Linnaean taxonomy">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Linnaean_taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="Linnaean_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a></div>
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<a href="Carolus_Linnaeus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus" title="Carolus Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect">Carolus Linnaeus</a></div>
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<p><a href="Carolus_Linnaeus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus" title="Carolus Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect">Carolus Linnaeus</a>' great work, the <i><a href="Systema_Natur$C3$A6" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Natur%C3%A6" title="Systema Naturæ" class="mw-redirect">Systema Naturæ</a></i> (1st ed. 1735), ran through twelve editions during his lifetime. In this work, nature was divided into three kingdoms: mineral, vegetable and animal. Linnaeus used five ranks: class, order, genus, species, and variety.</p>
<p>He abandoned long descriptive names of classes and orders still used by his immediate predecessors (Rivinus and Pitton de Tournefort) and replaced them with single-word names, provided genera with detailed diagnoses (<i>characteres naturales</i>), and combined numerous varieties into their species, thus saving botany from the chaos of new forms produced by <a href="Horticulturalist" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulturalist" title="Horticulturalist" class="mw-redirect">horticulturalists</a>.</p>
<p>Linnaeus is best known for his introduction of the method still used to formulate the <a href="Scientific_name.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Scientific_name" title="Scientific name" class="mw-redirect">scientific name</a> of every species. Before Linnaeus, long many-worded names (composed of a generic name and a <i>differentia specifica</i>) had been used, but as these names gave a description of the species, they were not fixed. In his <i>Philosophia Botanica</i> (1751) Linnaeus took every effort to improve the composition and reduce the length of the many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetorics, introducing new descriptive terms and defining their meaning with an unprecedented precision. In the late 1740s Linnaeus began to use a parallel system of naming species with <i>nomina trivialia.</i> <i>Nomen triviale</i>, a trivial name, was a single- or two-word epithet placed on the margin of the page next to the many-worded "scientific" name. The only rules Linnaeus applied to them was that the trivial names should be short, unique within a given genus, and that they should not be changed. Linnaeus consistently applied <i>nomina trivialia</i> to the species of plants in <i><a href="Species_Plantarum" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a></i> (1st ed. 1753) and to the species of animals in the <a href="10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">10th edition</a> of <i>Systema Naturæ</i> (1758).</p>
<p>By consistently using these specific epithets, Linnaeus separated nomenclature from description. Even though the parallel use of <i>nomina trivialia</i> and many-worded descriptive names continued until late in the eighteenth century, it was gradually replaced by the practice of using shorter proper names consisting of the generic name and the trivial name of the species. In the nineteenth century, this new practice was codified in the first Rules and Laws of Nomenclature, and the 1st ed. of <i>Species Plantarum</i> and the 10th ed. of <i>Systema Naturae</i> were chosen as starting points for the Botanical and Zoological Nomenclature respectively. This convention for naming species is referred to as <a href="Binomial_nomenclature.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a>.</p>
<p>Today, nomenclature is regulated by <a href="Nomenclature_codes" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature_Codes" title="Nomenclature Codes" class="mw-redirect">Nomenclature Codes</a>, which allows names divided into <a href="Taxonomic_rank.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic ranks</a>.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern system">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_system">Modern system</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a> and <a href="Phylogenetic_nomenclature" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a></div>
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Evolution of the <a href="Vertebrates" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrates" title="Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect">vertebrates</a> at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for <a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></div>
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The same relationship, expressed as a <a href="Cladogram" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> typical for <a href="Cladistics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a></div>
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<p>Whereas Linnaeus classified for ease of identification, the idea of the <a href="Linnaean_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> as translating into a sort of <a href="Dendrogram" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrogram" title="Dendrogram">dendrogram</a> of the <a href="Animal.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a>- and <a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> <a href="Kingdom_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before the <i><a href="On_the_Origin_of_Species" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> was published. Among early works exploring the idea of a <a href="Transmutation_of_species" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a> was <a href="Erasmus_Darwin" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a>'s 1796 <i><a href="Zoonomia" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonomia" title="Zoonomia">Zoönomia</a></i> and <a href="Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>'s <i>Philosophie Zoologique</i> of 1809. The idea was popularised in the Anglophone world by the speculative, but widely read <i><a href="Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a></i>, published anonymously by <a href="Robert_Chambers_(publisher_born_1802)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher_born_1802)" title="Robert Chambers (publisher born 1802)">Robert Chambers</a> in 1844.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<p>With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance that classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of <a href="Common_descent" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> quickly appeared. <a href="Tree_of_life_(science)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_life_(science)" title="Tree of life (science)" class="mw-redirect">Tree of Life</a> representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors were <a href="Birds" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds" title="Birds" class="mw-redirect">birds</a>. Using the then newly discovered fossils of <i><a href="Archaeopteryx" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i> and <i><a href="Hesperornis" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperornis" title="Hesperornis">Hesperornis</a></i>, <a href="Thomas_Henry_Huxley" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by <a href="Richard_Owen" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> in 1842.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of <a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">evolutionary taxonomic</a> thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th century, <a href="Paleontology" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">palaeontologists</a> worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="Modern_evolutionary_synthesis" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Modern evolutionary synthesis">modern evolutionary synthesis</a> of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of evolution of the major groups was in place. The evolutionary taxonomy being based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use.</p>
<p>Since the 1960s a trend called <a href="Phylogenetic_nomenclature" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic nomenclature</a> (or cladism) has emerged, inspired by the <a href="Cladistic" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistic" title="Cladistic" class="mw-redirect">cladistic</a> method. The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical <a href="Evolutionary_tree" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_tree" title="Evolutionary tree" class="mw-redirect">evolutionary tree</a>, ignoring ranks. If a <a href="Taxon.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a> includes all the descendants of some ancestral form, it is called <a href="Monophyletic" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyletic" title="Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect">monophyletic</a>. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them (e.g., <a href="Dinosaurs" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs" title="Dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect">dinosaurs</a>, with <a href="Birds" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds" title="Birds" class="mw-redirect">birds</a> as offspring group) are termed <a href="Paraphyletic" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyletic" title="Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect">paraphyletic</a>, while groups representing more than one branch from the tree of life are called <a href="Polyphyletic" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyletic" title="Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect">polyphyletic</a>. A formal code of nomenclature, the <i>International Code of <a href="Phylogenetic_nomenclature" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic Nomenclature</a></i>, or <i><a href="PhyloCode" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a></i> for short, is currently under development, intended to deal with names of <a href="Clade" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>. <a href="Linnaean_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean</a> ranks will be optional under the <i>PhyloCode</i>, which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes.</p>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kingdoms and domains">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Kingdoms_and_domains">Kingdoms and domains</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="Kingdom_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom (biology)</a></div>
<p>Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate <a href="Kingdom_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a>. Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the plant, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five and six-kingdom systems being the most common.</p>
<p><a href="Domain_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domains</a> are a relatively new grouping. The <a href="Three-domain_system" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three-domain system</a> was first proposed in 1990, but not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of the three-domain method is the separation of <a href="Archaea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and <a href="Bacteria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>, previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called <a href="Monera" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a>). Consequently, the three domains of life are conceptualized as Archaea, Bacteria, and <a href="Eukaryota" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryota" title="Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect">Eukaryota</a> (comprising the <a href="Nucleus_(biology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_(biology)" title="Nucleus (biology)" class="mw-redirect">nuclei-bearing</a> eukaryotes).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> A small minority of scientists add Archaea as a sixth kingdom, but do not accept the domain method.</p>
<p><a href="Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Thomas Cavalier-Smith</a>, who has published extensively on the classification of protists, has recently proposed that the <a href="Neomura" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a>, the clade that groups together the <a href="Archaea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and <a href="Eukarya" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukarya" title="Eukarya" class="mw-redirect">Eukarya</a>, would have evolved from <a href="Bacteria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>, more precisely from <a href="Actinobacteria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinobacteria" title="Actinobacteria">Actinobacteria</a>. His classification of 2004 treats the archaebacteria as part of a subkingdom of the Kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejects the three-domain system entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-CavalierSmith2004_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CavalierSmith2004-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></p>
<table style="margin-left: 0.5em; border-collapse: collapse;">
<tr>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="Carolus_Linnaeus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus" title="Carolus Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect">Linnaeus</a><br />
1735<sup id="cite_ref-Linnaeus1735_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linnaeus1735-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="Ernst_Haeckel" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a><br />
1866<sup id="cite_ref-Haeckel_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haeckel-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="$C3$89douard_Chatton" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Chatton" title="Édouard Chatton">Chatton</a><br />
1925<sup id="cite_ref-Chatton1925_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chatton1925-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="Herbert_Copeland" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Copeland" title="Herbert Copeland">Copeland</a><br />
1938<sup id="cite_ref-Copeland1938_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copeland1938-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="Robert_Whittaker" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Whittaker" title="Robert Whittaker">Whittaker</a><br />
1969<sup id="cite_ref-Whittaker1969_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whittaker1969-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="Carl_Woese" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Woese</a> et al.<br />
1990<sup id="cite_ref-Woese1990_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese1990-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
<th style="padding: 4px; border-bottom: solid black 1px;"><a href="Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Cavalier-Smith</a><br />
1998<sup id="cite_ref-CavalierSmith2004_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CavalierSmith2004-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;">2 kingdoms</td>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;">3 kingdoms</td>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;"><a href="Two-empire_system" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-empire_system" title="Two-empire system">2 empires</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;"><a href="Kingdom_(biology).html#Four_kingdoms" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Four_kingdoms" title="Kingdom (biology)">4 kingdoms</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;"><a href="Kingdom_(biology).html#Five_kingdoms" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Five_kingdoms" title="Kingdom (biology)">5 kingdoms</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;"><a href="Three-domain_system" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">3 domains</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; border-bottom: double black 3px; border-left: solid black 1px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px;"><a href="Kingdom_(biology).html#Six_kingdoms" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Six_kingdoms" title="Kingdom (biology)">6 kingdoms</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4" style="padding-left: 4px;"><i>(not treated)</i></td>
<td bgcolor="khaki" rowspan="4" style="padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Protist" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgrey" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Prokaryota" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryota" title="Prokaryota" class="mw-redirect">Prokaryota</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgrey" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Monera" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgrey" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Monera" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgrey" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Bacteria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgrey" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Bacteria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="darkgray" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Archaea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#E0D0B0" rowspan="5" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Eukaryota" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryota" title="Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect">Eukaryota</a></td>
<td bgcolor="khaki" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Protista" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista" title="Protista" class="mw-redirect">Protoctista</a></td>
<td bgcolor="khaki" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Protist" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a></td>
<td bgcolor="#E0D0B0" rowspan="5" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Eukaryote" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a></td>
<td bgcolor="khaki" rowspan="1" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Protozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="burlywood" rowspan="1" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Chromista" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="lightgreen" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px;"><a href="Vegetabilia" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetabilia" title="Vegetabilia" class="mw-redirect">Vegetabilia</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgreen" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgreen" rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgreen" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightgreen" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="lightblue" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Fungus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></td>
<td bgcolor="lightblue" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Fungus" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="pink" style="padding-left: 4px;"><a href="Animal.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></td>
<td bgcolor="pink" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Animal.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></td>
<td bgcolor="pink" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Animal.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></td>
<td bgcolor="pink" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Animal.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></td>
<td bgcolor="pink" style="padding-left: 4px; border-left: dotted black 1px;"><a href="Animal.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="Kingdom_(biology).html#Summary" webstripperwas="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Summary" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom (biology)#Summary</a></div>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Authorities (author citation)">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Authorities_.28author_citation.29">Authorities (author citation)</span></h2>
<p>An "authority" may be placed after a scientific name. The authority is the name of the scientist who first validly published the name. For example, in 1758 <a href="Carl_Linnaeus.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> gave the <a href="Asian_elephant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_elephant" title="Asian elephant">Asian elephant</a> the scientific name <i>Elephas maximus</i>, so the name is sometimes written as "<i>Elephas maximus</i> Linnaeus, 1758". The names of authors are frequently abbreviated: the abbreviation <i>L.</i> is universally accepted for Linnaeus, and in botany there is a regulated list of standard abbreviations (see <a href="List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation">list of botanists by author abbreviation</a>). The system for assigning authorities differs slightly between <a href="Author_citation_(botany)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">botany</a> and <a href="Author_citation_(zoology)" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author_citation_(zoology)" title="Author citation (zoology)">zoology</a>. However, it is standard that if a species' name or placement has been changed since the original description, the original authority's name is placed in parentheses.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Globally unique identifiers for names">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Globally_unique_identifiers_for_names">Globally unique identifiers for names</span></h2>
<p>There is a movement within the <a href="Biodiversity_Informatics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_Informatics" title="Biodiversity Informatics" class="mw-redirect">biodiversity informatics</a> community to provide <a href="GUID" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID" title="GUID" class="mw-redirect">globally unique identifiers</a> in the form of <a href="LSID" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSID" title="LSID">Life Science Identifiers</a> (LSID) for all biological names. This would allow authors to cite names unambiguously in electronic media and reduce the significance of errors in the spelling of names or the abbreviation of authority names. Three large nomenclatural databases (referred to as nomenclators) have already begun this process, these are <a href="Index_Fungorum" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">Index Fungorum</a>, <a href="IPNI" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPNI" title="IPNI" class="mw-redirect">International Plant Names Index</a> (IPNI) and <a href="ZooBank" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZooBank" title="ZooBank">ZooBank</a>. Other databases, that publish taxonomic rather than nomenclatural data, have also started using LSIDs to identify <b>taxa</b>. The key example of this is <a href="Catalogue_of_Life" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">Catalogue of Life</a>. In the next step in integration, these taxonomic databases will include references to the nomenclatural databases using LSIDs.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<table class="metadata mbox-small" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="Book icon" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" width="30" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style="">
<ul style="font-weight: bold">
<li><a href="Book3ABiological_classification" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:Biological_classification" title="Book:Biological classification">Book: Biological classification</a></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="38" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style=""><a href="Wikisource" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Categories" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Categories">Categories</a></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;">
<tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" webstripperwas="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" width="34" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style=""><a href="Wikispecies" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to: <i><b><a href="http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Main Page">a directory of life</a></b></i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a href="All_Species_Foundation" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Species_Foundation" title="All Species Foundation">All Species Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="Alpha_taxonomy" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_taxonomy" title="Alpha taxonomy">Alpha taxonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="Catalogue_of_Life" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">Catalogue of Life</a></li>
<li><a href="Holotype.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Holotype" title="Holotype">Holotype</a></li>
<li><a href="International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a></li>
<li><a href="International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Zoological Nomenclature">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_Latin_and_Greek_words_commonly_used_in_systematic_names" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin_and_Greek_words_commonly_used_in_systematic_names" title="List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names">List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names</a></li>
<li><a href="Phenetics" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenetics" title="Phenetics">Phenetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Phylogenetic_tree" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a></li>
<li><a href="Species_description.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Species_description" title="Species description">Species description</a></li>
<li><a href="Taxonomy.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy" class="mw-redirect">Taxonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="Tree_of_Life_Web_Project" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_Life_Web_Project" title="Tree of Life Web Project">Tree of Life Web Project</a></li>
<li><a href="Trinomial_nomenclature" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinomial_nomenclature" title="Trinomial nomenclature">Trinomial nomenclature</a></li>
<li><a href="Type_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Type_(biology)" title="Type (biology)">Type (biology)</a></li>
<li><a href="Virus_classification" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification" title="Virus classification">Virus classification</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal"><a href="Michel_Laurin" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Laurin" title="Michel Laurin">Laurin, M.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctoz.nl/ctz/vol79/nr04/art01" >"The subjective nature of Linnaean categories and its impact in evolutionary biology and biodiversity studies"</a>. <i>Contributions to Zoology</i> <b>79</b> (4)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 21 March 2012</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=79&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctoz.nl%2Fctz%2Fvol79%2Fnr04%2Fart01&rft.atitle=The+subjective+nature+of+Linnaean+categories+and+its+impact+in+evolutionary+biology+and+biodiversity+studies&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Laurin%2C+M.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=2010&rft.jtitle=Contributions+to+Zoology&rft.issue=4&rft.btitle=The+subjective+nature+of+Linnaean+categories+and+its+impact+in+evolutionary+biology+and+biodiversity+studies&rft.au=Laurin%2C+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Mayr_Bock_2002-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mayr_Bock_2002_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span id="CITEREFMayrBock2002" class="citation journal"><a href="Ernst_W.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Ernst_W._Mayr" title="Ernst W. Mayr" class="mw-redirect">Mayr, Ernst</a> & Bock, W.J. (2002). "Classifications and other ordering systems". <i>J. Zool. Syst. Evol. Research</i> <b>40</b> (4): 169–94. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1439-0469.2002.00211.x" >10.1046/j.1439-0469.2002.00211.x</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=40&rft.atitle=Classifications+and+other+ordering+systems&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=2002&rft.pages=169%E2%80%9394&rft.jtitle=J.+Zool.+Syst.+Evol.+Research&rft.issue=4&rft.btitle=Classifications+and+other+ordering+systems&rft.au=Mayr%2C+Ernst&rft.au=Bock%2C+W.J.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1439-0469.2002.00211.x&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayrBock2002">Mayr & Bock 2002</a>, p. 178</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayrBock2002">Mayr & Bock 2002</a>, p. 178ff</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1999) <i>International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth Edition</i>. - International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, XXIX + 306 pp.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gingerich1987-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gingerich1987_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Gingerich, P. D. (1987). "Evolution and the fossil record: patterns, rates, and processes". <i>Canadian Journal of Zoology</i> <b>65</b> (5): 1053–1060. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1139%2Fz87-169" >10.1139/z87-169</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=65&rft.atitle=Evolution+and+the+fossil+record%3A+patterns%2C+rates%2C+and+processes&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Gingerich&rft.aufirst=P.+D.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=1987&rft.pages=1053%E2%80%931060&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Zoology&rft.issue=5&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+the+fossil+record%3A+patterns%2C+rates%2C+and+processes&rft.au=Gingerich%2C+P.+D.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fz87-169&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span class="plainlinks noprint" style="font-size:smaller"><a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_doi/10.1139.2Fz87-169&action=edit&editintro=Template:Cite_doi/editintro2" >edit</a></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Categories</i> Section 5 and <i>Metaphysics</i> Book 6, but the terms are used in many places throughout the writings of Aristotle.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.insecta.bio.pu.ru" >"Nomina Circumscribentia Insectorum"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2008-10-09</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.insecta.bio.pu.ru&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomina+Circumscribentia+Insectorum&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span id="CITEREFSecord2000" class="citation journal">Secord, James A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl" ><i>Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="International_Standard_Book_Number.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="Special3ABookSources/978-0-226-74410-0" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74410-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74410-0">978-0-226-74410-0</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.press.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fhfs.cgi%2F00%2F14098.ctl&rft.genre=book&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Secord&rft.pub=Chicago%3A+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.btitle=Victorian+Sensation%3A+The+Extraordinary+Publication%2C+Reception%2C+and+Secret+Authorship+of+Vestiges+of+the+Natural+History+of+Creation&rft.isbn=978-0-226-74410-0&rft.au=Secord%2C+James+A.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huxley, T. H. (1876): Lectures on Evolution. <i>New York Tribune</i>. Extra. no 36. In Collected Essays IV: pp 46-138 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html" >original text w/ figures</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Rudwick, M. J. S. (1985). <i>The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology</i>. <a href="University_of_Chicago_Press" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 24. <a href="International_Standard_Book_Number.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="Special3ABookSources/0-226-73103-0" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-73103-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-73103-0">0-226-73103-0</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.pages=24&rft.genre=book&rft.aufirst=M.+J.+S.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Fossils%3A+Episodes+in+the+History+of+Palaeontology&rft.isbn=0-226-73103-0&rft.au=Rudwick%2C+M.+J.+S.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See especially pp. 45, 78 and 555 of Joel Cracraft and Michael J. Donaghue, eds. (2004). <i>Assembling the Tree of Life</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-CavalierSmith2004-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CavalierSmith2004_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CavalierSmith2004_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span id="CITEREFCavalier-Smith1998" class="citation journal">Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=685" >"A revised six-kingdom system of life"</a>. <i>Biological Reviews</i> <b>73</b> (03): 203–66. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x" >10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x</a>. <a href="PubMed_Identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9809012" >9809012</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=73&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D685&rft.atitle=A+revised+six-kingdom+system+of+life&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Cavalier-Smith&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=1998&rft.pages=203%E2%80%9366&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews&rft.issue=03&rft.btitle=A+revised+six-kingdom+system+of+life&rft.au=Cavalier-Smith%2C+T.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9809012&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Linnaeus1735-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Linnaeus1735_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Linnaeus, C. (1735). <i>Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species</i>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.aulast=Linnaeus&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.date=1735&rft.btitle=Systemae+Naturae%2C+sive+regna+tria+naturae%2C+systematics+proposita+per+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera+%26+species&rft.genre=book&rft.au=Linnaeus%2C+C.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Haeckel-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haeckel_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Haeckel, E. (1866). <i>Generelle Morphologie der Organismen</i>. Reimer, Berlin.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.btitle=Generelle+Morphologie+der+Organismen&rft.aulast=Haeckel&rft.pub=Reimer%2C+Berlin&rft.genre=book&rft.date=1866&rft.au=Haeckel%2C+E.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Chatton1925-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chatton1925_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Chatton, É. (1925). "<i>Pansporella perplexa</i>. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". <i>Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale</i>. 10-VII: 1–84.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=10-VII&rft.atitle=%27%27Pansporella+perplexa%27%27.+R%C3%A9flexions+sur+la+biologie+et+la+phylog%C3%A9nie+des+protozoaires&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Chatton&rft.aufirst=%C3%89.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.btitle=%27%27Pansporella+perplexa%27%27.+R%C3%A9flexions+sur+la+biologie+et+la+phylog%C3%A9nie+des+protozoaires&rft.jtitle=Annales+des+Sciences+Naturelles+-+Zoologie+et+Biologie+Animale&rft.pages=1%E2%80%9384&rft.date=1925&rft.au=Chatton%2C+%C3%89.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Copeland1938-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Copeland1938_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Copeland, H. (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms". <i>Quarterly Review of Biology</i> <b>13</b>: 383–420. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F394568" >10.1086/394568</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=13&rft.atitle=The+kingdoms+of+organisms&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Copeland&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.btitle=The+kingdoms+of+organisms&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.pages=383%E2%80%93420&rft.date=1938&rft.au=Copeland%2C+H.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F394568&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Whittaker1969-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whittaker1969_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Whittaker, R. H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms". <i>Science</i> <b>163</b> (3863): 150–60. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.163.3863.150" >10.1126/science.163.3863.150</a>. <a href="PubMed_Identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5762760" >5762760</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=163&rft.atitle=New+concepts+of+kingdoms+of+organisms&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=1969&rft.pages=150%E2%80%9360&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.issue=3863&rft.btitle=New+concepts+of+kingdoms+of+organisms&rft.au=Whittaker%2C+R.+H.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.163.3863.150&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5762760&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Woese1990-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woese1990_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576" >"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya."</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i> <b>87</b> (12): 4576–9. <a href="Bibcode" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990PNAS...87.4576W" >1990PNAS...87.4576W</a>. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.87.12.4576" >10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576</a>. <a href="PubMed_Central" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159" >54159</a>. <a href="PubMed_Identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2112744" >2112744</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=87&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F87%2F12%2F4576&rft.atitle=Towards+a+natural+system+of+organisms%3A+proposal+for+the+domains+Archaea%2C+Bacteria%2C+and+Eucarya.&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Woese&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=1990&rft.pages=4576%E2%80%939&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.issue=12&rft.btitle=Towards+a+natural+system+of+organisms%3A+proposal+for+the+domains+Archaea%2C+Bacteria%2C+and+Eucarya.&rft.au=Woese%2C+C.&rft.au=Kandler%2C+O.&rft.au=Wheelis%2C+M.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.87.12.4576&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2112744&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990PNAS...87.4576W&rft_id=info%3Apmc%2F54159&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_classification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span></h2>
<div class="refbegin references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul>
<li><span class="citation book"><a href="Scott_Atran" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Atran" title="Scott Atran">Atran, S.</a> (1990). <i>Cognitive foundations of natural history: towards an anthropology of science</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. xii+360 pages. <a href="International_Standard_Book_Number.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="Special3ABookSources/0-521-37293-3,_0521372933" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-37293-3,_0521372933" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-37293-3, 0521372933">0-521-37293-3, 0521372933</a> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Check <code>|isbn=</code> value (<a href="Help3ACS1_errors.html#bad_isbn" webstripperwas="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_isbn" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=xii%2B360+pages&rft.genre=book&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Atran%2C+S.&rft.isbn=0-521-37293-30521372933&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.btitle=Cognitive+foundations+of+natural+history%3A+towards+an+anthropology+of+science&rft.au=Atran%2C+S.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Larson, J. L. (1971). <i>Reason and experience. The representation of Natural Order in the work of Carl von Linne</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. VII+171 pages.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.aulast=Larson%2C+J.+L.&rft.btitle=Reason+and+experience.+The+representation+of+Natural+Order+in+the+work+of+Carl+von+Linne&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.date=1971&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=VII%2B171+pages&rft.au=Larson%2C+J.+L.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span id="CITEREFMayrBock2002" class="citation journal"><a href="Ernst_W.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Ernst_W._Mayr" title="Ernst W. Mayr" class="mw-redirect">Mayr, Ernst</a> & Bock, W.J. (2002). "Classifications and other ordering systems". <i>J. Zool. Syst. Evol. Research</i> <b>40</b> (4): 169–94. <a href="Digital_object_identifier.html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1439-0469.2002.00211.x" >10.1046/j.1439-0469.2002.00211.x</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.volume=40&rft.atitle=Classifications+and+other+ordering+systems&rft.genre=book&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.date=2002&rft.pages=169%E2%80%9394&rft.jtitle=J.+Zool.+Syst.+Evol.+Research&rft.issue=4&rft.btitle=Classifications+and+other+ordering+systems&rft.au=Mayr%2C+Ernst&rft.au=Bock%2C+W.J.&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1439-0469.2002.00211.x&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
<li>Schuh, R. T. and A. V. Z. Brower. (2009). <i>Biological Systematics: principles and applications (2nd edn.)</i> Cornell University Press xiii+311 pages. <a href="Special3ABookSources/9780801447990" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801447990" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-8014-4799-0</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2008/browse_taxa.php" >Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life 2008</a></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Stafleau, F. A. (1971). <i>Linnaeus and the Linnaeans. The spreading of their ideas in systematic botany, 1753–1789</i>. Utrecht: Oosthoek. xvi+386 pages.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft.aulast=Stafleau%2C+F.+A.&rft.btitle=Linnaeus+and+the+Linnaeans.+The+spreading+of+their+ideas+in+systematic+botany%2C+1753%E2%80%931789&rft.place=Utrecht&rft.date=1971&rft.pub=Oosthoek&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=xvi%2B386+pages&rft.au=Stafleau%2C+F.+A.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Biological classification" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
</div>
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<div class="noprint plainlinks hlist navbar mini">
<ul>
<li class="nv-view"><a href="Template3AEukaryota" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;;">v</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-talk"><a href="Template_talk3AEukaryota" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Eukaryota" title="Template talk:Eukaryota"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;;">t</span></a></li>
<li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Eukaryota&action=edit" ><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;;">e</span></a></li>
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<div style="font-size:110%;"><a href="Eukaryote" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a></div>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Domain_(biology).html" webstripperwas="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a> : <a href="Archaea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li>
<li><a href="Bacteria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>
<li><b>Eukaryota</b></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="Bikont" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikont" title="Bikont">Bikonta</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
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<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Plants$2BHC$2BSAR_megagroup" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants%2BHC%2BSAR_megagroup" title="Plants+HC+SAR megagroup">AH/SAR</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
<table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;">
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#90EE90;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Plants$2BHC_clade" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants%2BHC_clade" title="Plants+HC clade">AH</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Archaeplastida" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a>, or <a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae sensu lato</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Viridiplantae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a>/<a href="Plant" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae sensu stricto</a></li>
<li><a href="Red_algae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Rhodophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="Glaucophyte" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophyta</a></li>
</ul>
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<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Hacrobia" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacrobia" title="Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a>, or <a href="Chromalveolate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromalveolate" title="Chromalveolate" class="mw-redirect">non-SAR</a> <a href="Chromalveolate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromalveolate" title="Chromalveolate" class="mw-redirect">chromalveolata</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Haptophyte" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="Cryptomonad" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">Cryptophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="Centrohelid" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrohelid" title="Centrohelid">Centroheliozoa</a></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#ADFF2F;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="SAR_supergroup" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#ADFF2F;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Halvaria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvaria" title="Halvaria">Halvaria</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#ADFF2F;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Heterokont" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokont" title="Heterokont">Heterokont</a> ("S")</div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Ochrophyta" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochrophyta" title="Ochrophyta">Ochrophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="Bigyra" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigyra" title="Bigyra">Bigyra</a></li>
<li><a href="Pseudofungi" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudofungi" title="Pseudofungi">Pseudofungi</a></li>
</ul>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#ADFF2F;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Alveolate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolate" title="Alveolate">Alveolata</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Ciliate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a></li>
<li><a href="Myzozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myzozoa" title="Myzozoa">Myzozoa</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="Apicomplexa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a></li>
<li><a href="Dinoflagellate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellata</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
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</table>
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<tr style="height:2px;">
<td></td>
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<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:rgb(225,204,252);;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Rhizaria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Cercozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="Retaria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retaria" title="Retaria">Retaria</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="Foraminifera" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a></li>
<li><a href="Radiolarian" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiolarian" title="Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect">Radiolaria</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
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<tr style="height:2px;">
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#F0E68C;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Excavate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavate" title="Excavate">Excavata</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Discoba" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoba" title="Discoba" class="mw-redirect">Discoba</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="Euglenozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="Jakobea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakobea" title="Jakobea" class="mw-redirect">Jakobea</a></li>
<li><a href="Percolozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percolozoa" title="Percolozoa">Percolozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="Loukozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loukozoa" title="Loukozoa">Loukozoa</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="Metamonad" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamonad" title="Metamonad">Metamonad</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Malawimonas" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawimonas" title="Malawimonas">Malawimonas</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<tr style="height:2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:rgb(250,240,230);">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Apusozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apusozoa" title="Apusozoa">Apusozoa</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Apusomonadida" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apusomonadida" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="Apusomonas" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apusomonas" title="Apusomonas">Apusomonas</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Amastigomonas" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amastigomonas" title="Amastigomonas">Amastigomonas</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="Apusozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apusozoa" title="Apusozoa">Ancyromonadida</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="Ancyromonas" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancyromonas" title="Ancyromonas">Ancyromonas</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="Spironemidae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spironemidae" title="Spironemidae">Hemimastigida</a>
<ul>
<li><i><a href="Spironemidae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spironemidae" title="Spironemidae">Hemimastix</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Spironemidae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spironemidae" title="Spironemidae">Spironema</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Spironemidae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spironemidae" title="Spironemidae">Stereonema</a></i></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<tr style="height:2px;">
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="Unikont" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unikont" title="Unikont">Unikonta</a></th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
<table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#FFC8A0;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Amoebozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Lobosea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobosea" title="Lobosea">Lobosea</a></li>
<li><a href="Conosa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conosa" title="Conosa">Conosa</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Phalansterium" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalansterium" title="Phalansterium">Phalansterium</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Breviata" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breviata" title="Breviata">Breviata</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
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<tr style="height:2px;">
<td></td>
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<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Opisthokont" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonta</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
<table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;;background:#D3D3A4;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Holozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holozoa" title="Holozoa">Holozoa</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
<table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;background:#D3D3A4;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Mesomycetozoea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesomycetozoea" title="Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Dermocystida" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermocystida" title="Dermocystida">Dermocystida</a></li>
<li><a href="Ichthyophonida" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyophonida" title="Ichthyophonida">Ichthyophonida</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;background:#D3D3A4;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Filozoa" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozoa" title="Filozoa">Filozoa</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"></div>
<table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;">
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;background:#D3D3A4;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Filasterea" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasterea" title="Filasterea">Filasterea</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><i><a href="Capsaspora" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsaspora" title="Capsaspora">Capsaspora</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Ministeria" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministeria" title="Ministeria">Ministeria</a></i></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:2px;">
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;background:#D3D3A4;;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="Choanoflagellate" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellate</a></div>
</th>
<td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;">
<div style="padding:0em 0.25em;">
<ul>
<li><a href="Codonosigidae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codonosigidae" title="Codonosigidae">Codonosigidae</a></li>
<li><a href="Salpingoecidae" webstripperwas="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salpingoecidae" title="Salpingoecidae">Salpingoecidae</a></li>