diff --git a/raft/diff_test.go b/raft/diff_test.go
index 3114a1f0017..6030527941f 100644
--- a/raft/diff_test.go
+++ b/raft/diff_test.go
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ func mustTemp(pre, body string) string {
 }
 
 func ltoa(l *raftLog) string {
-	s := fmt.Sprintf("committed: %d\n", l.committed)
+	s := fmt.Sprintf("lastIndex: %d\n", l.lastIndex())
 	s += fmt.Sprintf("applied:  %d\n", l.applied)
 	for i, e := range l.allEntries() {
 		s += fmt.Sprintf("#%d: %+v\n", i, e)
diff --git a/raft/node.go b/raft/node.go
index d374b6c0c21..381000621ac 100644
--- a/raft/node.go
+++ b/raft/node.go
@@ -211,11 +211,7 @@ type Peer struct {
 	Context []byte
 }
 
-// StartNode returns a new Node given configuration and a list of raft peers.
-// It appends a ConfChangeAddNode entry for each given peer to the initial log.
-//
-// Peers must not be zero length; call RestartNode in that case.
-func StartNode(c *Config, peers []Peer) Node {
+func setupNode(c *Config, peers []Peer) *node {
 	if len(peers) == 0 {
 		panic("no peers given; use RestartNode instead")
 	}
@@ -229,9 +225,17 @@ func StartNode(c *Config, peers []Peer) Node {
 	}
 
 	n := newNode(rn)
+	return &n
+}
 
+// StartNode returns a new Node given configuration and a list of raft peers.
+// It appends a ConfChangeAddNode entry for each given peer to the initial log.
+//
+// Peers must not be zero length; call RestartNode in that case.
+func StartNode(c *Config, peers []Peer) Node {
+	n := setupNode(c, peers)
 	go n.run()
-	return &n
+	return n
 }
 
 // RestartNode is similar to StartNode but does not take a list of peers.
diff --git a/raft/node_test.go b/raft/node_test.go
index 2c2ff801809..5cb729eb4fa 100644
--- a/raft/node_test.go
+++ b/raft/node_test.go
@@ -35,6 +35,12 @@ import (
 func readyWithTimeout(n Node) Ready {
 	select {
 	case rd := <-n.Ready():
+		if nn, ok := n.(*nodeTestHarness); ok {
+			n = nn.node
+		}
+		if nn, ok := n.(*node); ok {
+			nn.rn.raft.logger.Infof("emitted ready: %s", DescribeReady(rd, nil))
+		}
 		return rd
 	case <-time.After(time.Second):
 		panic("timed out waiting for ready")
@@ -126,6 +132,10 @@ func TestNodeStepUnblock(t *testing.T) {
 func TestNodePropose(t *testing.T) {
 	var msgs []raftpb.Message
 	appendStep := func(r *raft, m raftpb.Message) error {
+		t.Log(DescribeMessage(m, nil))
+		if m.Type == raftpb.MsgAppResp {
+			return nil // injected by (*raft).advance
+		}
 		msgs = append(msgs, m)
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -163,55 +173,6 @@ func TestNodePropose(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestNodeReadIndex ensures that node.ReadIndex sends the MsgReadIndex message to the underlying raft.
-// It also ensures that ReadState can be read out through ready chan.
-func TestNodeReadIndex(t *testing.T) {
-	var msgs []raftpb.Message
-	appendStep := func(r *raft, m raftpb.Message) error {
-		msgs = append(msgs, m)
-		return nil
-	}
-	wrs := []ReadState{{Index: uint64(1), RequestCtx: []byte("somedata")}}
-
-	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
-	rn := newTestRawNode(1, 10, 1, s)
-	n := newNode(rn)
-	r := rn.raft
-	r.readStates = wrs
-
-	go n.run()
-	n.Campaign(context.TODO())
-	for {
-		rd := <-n.Ready()
-		if !reflect.DeepEqual(rd.ReadStates, wrs) {
-			t.Errorf("ReadStates = %v, want %v", rd.ReadStates, wrs)
-		}
-
-		s.Append(rd.Entries)
-
-		if rd.SoftState.Lead == r.id {
-			n.Advance()
-			break
-		}
-		n.Advance()
-	}
-
-	r.step = appendStep
-	wrequestCtx := []byte("somedata2")
-	n.ReadIndex(context.TODO(), wrequestCtx)
-	n.Stop()
-
-	if len(msgs) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("len(msgs) = %d, want %d", len(msgs), 1)
-	}
-	if msgs[0].Type != raftpb.MsgReadIndex {
-		t.Errorf("msg type = %d, want %d", msgs[0].Type, raftpb.MsgReadIndex)
-	}
-	if !bytes.Equal(msgs[0].Entries[0].Data, wrequestCtx) {
-		t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", msgs[0].Entries[0].Data, wrequestCtx)
-	}
-}
-
 // TestDisableProposalForwarding ensures that proposals are not forwarded to
 // the leader when DisableProposalForwarding is true.
 func TestDisableProposalForwarding(t *testing.T) {
@@ -308,6 +269,9 @@ func TestNodeReadIndexToOldLeader(t *testing.T) {
 func TestNodeProposeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 	var msgs []raftpb.Message
 	appendStep := func(r *raft, m raftpb.Message) error {
+		if m.Type == raftpb.MsgAppResp {
+			return nil // injected by (*raft).advance
+		}
 		msgs = append(msgs, m)
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -352,30 +316,34 @@ func TestNodeProposeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 // not affect the later propose to add new node.
 func TestNodeProposeAddDuplicateNode(t *testing.T) {
 	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
-	rn := newTestRawNode(1, 10, 1, s)
-	n := newNode(rn)
-	go n.run()
-	n.Campaign(context.TODO())
-	rdyEntries := make([]raftpb.Entry, 0)
+	cfg := newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s)
+	ctx, cancel, n := newNodeTestHarness(context.Background(), t, cfg)
+	defer cancel()
+	n.Campaign(ctx)
+	allCommittedEntries := make([]raftpb.Entry, 0)
 	ticker := time.NewTicker(time.Millisecond * 100)
 	defer ticker.Stop()
-	done := make(chan struct{})
-	stop := make(chan struct{})
+	goroutineStopped := make(chan struct{})
 	applyConfChan := make(chan struct{})
 
+	rd := readyWithTimeout(n)
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	n.Advance()
+
 	go func() {
-		defer close(done)
+		defer close(goroutineStopped)
 		for {
 			select {
-			case <-stop:
+			case <-ctx.Done():
 				return
 			case <-ticker.C:
 				n.Tick()
 			case rd := <-n.Ready():
+				t.Log(DescribeReady(rd, nil))
 				s.Append(rd.Entries)
 				applied := false
-				for _, e := range rd.Entries {
-					rdyEntries = append(rdyEntries, e)
+				for _, e := range rd.CommittedEntries {
+					allCommittedEntries = append(allCommittedEntries, e)
 					switch e.Type {
 					case raftpb.EntryNormal:
 					case raftpb.EntryConfChange:
@@ -395,32 +363,31 @@ func TestNodeProposeAddDuplicateNode(t *testing.T) {
 
 	cc1 := raftpb.ConfChange{Type: raftpb.ConfChangeAddNode, NodeID: 1}
 	ccdata1, _ := cc1.Marshal()
-	n.ProposeConfChange(context.TODO(), cc1)
+	n.ProposeConfChange(ctx, cc1)
 	<-applyConfChan
 
 	// try add the same node again
-	n.ProposeConfChange(context.TODO(), cc1)
+	n.ProposeConfChange(ctx, cc1)
 	<-applyConfChan
 
 	// the new node join should be ok
 	cc2 := raftpb.ConfChange{Type: raftpb.ConfChangeAddNode, NodeID: 2}
 	ccdata2, _ := cc2.Marshal()
-	n.ProposeConfChange(context.TODO(), cc2)
+	n.ProposeConfChange(ctx, cc2)
 	<-applyConfChan
 
-	close(stop)
-	<-done
+	cancel()
+	<-goroutineStopped
 
-	if len(rdyEntries) != 4 {
-		t.Errorf("len(entry) = %d, want %d, %v\n", len(rdyEntries), 4, rdyEntries)
+	if len(allCommittedEntries) != 4 {
+		t.Errorf("len(entry) = %d, want %d, %v\n", len(allCommittedEntries), 4, allCommittedEntries)
 	}
-	if !bytes.Equal(rdyEntries[1].Data, ccdata1) {
-		t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", rdyEntries[1].Data, ccdata1)
+	if !bytes.Equal(allCommittedEntries[1].Data, ccdata1) {
+		t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", allCommittedEntries[1].Data, ccdata1)
 	}
-	if !bytes.Equal(rdyEntries[3].Data, ccdata2) {
-		t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", rdyEntries[3].Data, ccdata2)
+	if !bytes.Equal(allCommittedEntries[3].Data, ccdata2) {
+		t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", allCommittedEntries[3].Data, ccdata2)
 	}
-	n.Stop()
 }
 
 // TestBlockProposal ensures that node will block proposal when it does not
@@ -463,6 +430,10 @@ func TestNodeProposeWaitDropped(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Logf("dropping message: %v", m.String())
 			return ErrProposalDropped
 		}
+		if m.Type == raftpb.MsgAppResp {
+			// This is produced by raft internally, see (*raft).advance.
+			return nil
+		}
 		msgs = append(msgs, m)
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -495,7 +466,7 @@ func TestNodeProposeWaitDropped(t *testing.T) {
 
 	n.Stop()
 	if len(msgs) != 0 {
-		t.Fatalf("len(msgs) = %d, want %d", len(msgs), 1)
+		t.Fatalf("len(msgs) = %d, want %d", len(msgs), 0)
 	}
 }
 
@@ -580,9 +551,6 @@ func TestReadyContainUpdates(t *testing.T) {
 // start with correct configuration change entries, and can accept and commit
 // proposals.
 func TestNodeStart(t *testing.T) {
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
-	defer cancel()
-
 	cc := raftpb.ConfChange{Type: raftpb.ConfChangeAddNode, NodeID: 1}
 	ccdata, err := cc.Marshal()
 	if err != nil {
@@ -600,11 +568,17 @@ func TestNodeStart(t *testing.T) {
 			MustSync: true,
 		},
 		{
-			HardState:        raftpb.HardState{Term: 2, Commit: 3, Vote: 1},
+			HardState:        raftpb.HardState{Term: 2, Commit: 2, Vote: 1},
 			Entries:          []raftpb.Entry{{Term: 2, Index: 3, Data: []byte("foo")}},
-			CommittedEntries: []raftpb.Entry{{Term: 2, Index: 3, Data: []byte("foo")}},
+			CommittedEntries: []raftpb.Entry{{Term: 2, Index: 2, Data: nil}},
 			MustSync:         true,
 		},
+		{
+			HardState:        raftpb.HardState{Term: 2, Commit: 3, Vote: 1},
+			Entries:          nil,
+			CommittedEntries: []raftpb.Entry{{Term: 2, Index: 3, Data: []byte("foo")}},
+			MustSync:         false,
+		},
 	}
 	storage := NewMemoryStorage()
 	c := &Config{
@@ -616,27 +590,44 @@ func TestNodeStart(t *testing.T) {
 		MaxInflightMsgs: 256,
 	}
 	n := StartNode(c, []Peer{{ID: 1}})
-	defer n.Stop()
-	g := <-n.Ready()
-	if !reflect.DeepEqual(g, wants[0]) {
-		t.Fatalf("#%d: g = %+v,\n             w   %+v", 1, g, wants[0])
-	} else {
-		storage.Append(g.Entries)
+	ctx, cancel, n := newNodeTestHarness(context.Background(), t, c, Peer{ID: 1})
+	defer cancel()
+
+	{
+		rd := <-n.Ready()
+		if !reflect.DeepEqual(rd, wants[0]) {
+			t.Fatalf("#1: rd = %+v,\n             w   %+v", rd, wants[0])
+		}
+		storage.Append(rd.Entries)
 		n.Advance()
 	}
 
 	if err := n.Campaign(ctx); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	rd := <-n.Ready()
-	storage.Append(rd.Entries)
-	n.Advance()
+
+	{
+		rd := <-n.Ready()
+		storage.Append(rd.Entries)
+		n.Advance()
+	}
 
 	n.Propose(ctx, []byte("foo"))
-	if g2 := <-n.Ready(); !reflect.DeepEqual(g2, wants[1]) {
-		t.Errorf("#%d: g = %+v,\n             w   %+v", 2, g2, wants[1])
-	} else {
-		storage.Append(g2.Entries)
+	{
+		rd := <-n.Ready()
+		if !reflect.DeepEqual(rd, wants[1]) {
+			t.Errorf("#2: rd = %+v,\n             w   %+v", rd, wants[1])
+		}
+		storage.Append(rd.Entries)
+		n.Advance()
+	}
+
+	{
+		rd := <-n.Ready()
+		if !reflect.DeepEqual(rd, wants[2]) {
+			t.Errorf("#3: rd = %+v,\n             w   %+v", rd, wants[2])
+		}
+		storage.Append(rd.Entries)
 		n.Advance()
 	}
 
@@ -740,10 +731,7 @@ func TestNodeRestartFromSnapshot(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestNodeAdvance(t *testing.T) {
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
-	defer cancel()
-
-	storage := NewMemoryStorage()
+	storage := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
 	c := &Config{
 		ID:              1,
 		ElectionTick:    10,
@@ -752,21 +740,17 @@ func TestNodeAdvance(t *testing.T) {
 		MaxSizePerMsg:   noLimit,
 		MaxInflightMsgs: 256,
 	}
-	n := StartNode(c, []Peer{{ID: 1}})
-	defer n.Stop()
-	rd := <-n.Ready()
-	storage.Append(rd.Entries)
-	n.Advance()
+	ctx, cancel, n := newNodeTestHarness(context.Background(), t, c)
+	defer cancel()
 
 	n.Campaign(ctx)
-	<-n.Ready()
+	rd := readyWithTimeout(n)
+	// Commit empty entry.
+	storage.Append(rd.Entries)
+	n.Advance()
 
 	n.Propose(ctx, []byte("foo"))
-	select {
-	case rd = <-n.Ready():
-		t.Fatalf("unexpected Ready before Advance: %+v", rd)
-	case <-time.After(time.Millisecond):
-	}
+	rd = readyWithTimeout(n)
 	storage.Append(rd.Entries)
 	n.Advance()
 	select {
@@ -911,15 +895,14 @@ func TestCommitPagination(t *testing.T) {
 	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
 	cfg := newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s)
 	cfg.MaxCommittedSizePerReady = 2048
-	rn, err := NewRawNode(cfg)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	n := newNode(rn)
-	go n.run()
-	n.Campaign(context.TODO())
+	ctx, cancel, n := newNodeTestHarness(context.Background(), t, cfg)
+	defer cancel()
+	n.Campaign(ctx)
 
-	rd := readyWithTimeout(&n)
+	rd := readyWithTimeout(n)
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	n.Advance()
+	rd = readyWithTimeout(n)
 	if len(rd.CommittedEntries) != 1 {
 		t.Fatalf("expected 1 (empty) entry, got %d", len(rd.CommittedEntries))
 	}
@@ -928,25 +911,32 @@ func TestCommitPagination(t *testing.T) {
 
 	blob := []byte(strings.Repeat("a", 1000))
 	for i := 0; i < 3; i++ {
-		if err := n.Propose(context.TODO(), blob); err != nil {
+		if err := n.Propose(ctx, blob); err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
 	}
 
+	// First the three proposals have to be appended.
+	rd = readyWithTimeout(n)
+	if len(rd.Entries) != 3 {
+		t.Fatal("expected to see three entries")
+	}
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	n.Advance()
+
 	// The 3 proposals will commit in two batches.
-	rd = readyWithTimeout(&n)
+	rd = readyWithTimeout(n)
 	if len(rd.CommittedEntries) != 2 {
 		t.Fatalf("expected 2 entries in first batch, got %d", len(rd.CommittedEntries))
 	}
 	s.Append(rd.Entries)
 	n.Advance()
-	rd = readyWithTimeout(&n)
+	rd = readyWithTimeout(n)
 	if len(rd.CommittedEntries) != 1 {
 		t.Fatalf("expected 1 entry in second batch, got %d", len(rd.CommittedEntries))
 	}
 	s.Append(rd.Entries)
 	n.Advance()
-	n.Stop()
 }
 
 type ignoreSizeHintMemStorage struct {
diff --git a/raft/node_util_test.go b/raft/node_util_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..5093cba6bf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/raft/node_util_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+// Copyright 2022 The etcd Authors
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package raft
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+)
+
+type nodeTestHarness struct {
+	*node
+	t *testing.T
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Debug(v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Log(v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Debugf(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Logf(format, v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Error(v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Error(v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Errorf(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Errorf(format, v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Info(v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Log(v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Infof(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Logf(format, v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Warning(v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Log(v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Warningf(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Logf(format, v...)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Fatal(v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Error(v...)
+	panic(v)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Fatalf(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Errorf(format, v...)
+	panic(fmt.Sprintf(format, v...))
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Panic(v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Log(v...)
+	panic(v)
+}
+
+func (l *nodeTestHarness) Panicf(format string, v ...interface{}) {
+	l.t.Errorf(format, v...)
+	panic(fmt.Sprintf(format, v...))
+}
+
+func newNodeTestHarness(ctx context.Context, t *testing.T, cfg *Config, peers ...Peer) (_ context.Context, cancel func(), _ *nodeTestHarness) {
+	// Wrap context in a 10s timeout to make tests more robust. Otherwise,
+	// it's likely that deadlock will occur unless Node behaves exactly as
+	// expected - when you expect a Ready and start waiting on the channel
+	// but no Ready ever shows up, for example.
+	ctx, cancel = context.WithTimeout(ctx, 10*time.Second)
+	var n *node
+	if len(peers) > 0 {
+		n = setupNode(cfg, peers)
+	} else {
+		rn, err := NewRawNode(cfg)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		nn := newNode(rn)
+		n = &nn
+	}
+	go func() {
+		defer func() {
+			if r := recover(); r != nil {
+				t.Error(r)
+			}
+		}()
+		defer cancel()
+		defer n.Stop()
+		n.run()
+	}()
+	t.Cleanup(n.Stop)
+	return ctx, cancel, &nodeTestHarness{node: n, t: t}
+}
diff --git a/raft/raft.go b/raft/raft.go
index 8ffa6792863..52b4192c8c5 100644
--- a/raft/raft.go
+++ b/raft/raft.go
@@ -572,6 +572,19 @@ func (r *raft) advance(rd Ready) {
 
 	if len(rd.Entries) > 0 {
 		e := rd.Entries[len(rd.Entries)-1]
+		if r.id == r.lead {
+			// The leader needs to self-ack the entries just appended (since it doesn't
+			// send an MsgApp to itself). This is roughly equivalent to:
+			//
+			//  r.prs.Progress[r.id].MaybeUpdate(e.Index)
+			//  if r.maybeCommit() {
+			//  	r.bcastAppend()
+			//  }
+			_ = r.Step(pb.Message{From: r.id, Type: pb.MsgAppResp, Index: e.Index})
+		}
+		// NB: it's important for performance that this call happens after
+		// r.Step above on the leader. This is because r.Step can then use
+		// a fast-path for `r.raftLog.term()`.
 		r.raftLog.stableTo(e.Index, e.Term)
 	}
 	if !IsEmptySnap(rd.Snapshot) {
@@ -634,10 +647,7 @@ func (r *raft) appendEntry(es ...pb.Entry) (accepted bool) {
 		return false
 	}
 	// use latest "last" index after truncate/append
-	li = r.raftLog.append(es...)
-	r.prs.Progress[r.id].MaybeUpdate(li)
-	// Regardless of maybeCommit's return, our caller will call bcastAppend.
-	r.maybeCommit()
+	r.raftLog.append(es...)
 	return true
 }
 
@@ -735,7 +745,11 @@ func (r *raft) becomeLeader() {
 	// (perhaps after having received a snapshot as a result). The leader is
 	// trivially in this state. Note that r.reset() has initialized this
 	// progress with the last index already.
-	r.prs.Progress[r.id].BecomeReplicate()
+	pr := r.prs.Progress[r.id]
+	pr.BecomeReplicate()
+	// The leader always has RecentActive == true; MsgCheckQuorum makes sure to
+	// preserve this.
+	pr.RecentActive = true
 
 	// Conservatively set the pendingConfIndex to the last index in the
 	// log. There may or may not be a pending config change, but it's
@@ -995,15 +1009,6 @@ func stepLeader(r *raft, m pb.Message) error {
 		r.bcastHeartbeat()
 		return nil
 	case pb.MsgCheckQuorum:
-		// The leader should always see itself as active. As a precaution, handle
-		// the case in which the leader isn't in the configuration any more (for
-		// example if it just removed itself).
-		//
-		// TODO(tbg): I added a TODO in removeNode, it doesn't seem that the
-		// leader steps down when removing itself. I might be missing something.
-		if pr := r.prs.Progress[r.id]; pr != nil {
-			pr.RecentActive = true
-		}
 		if !r.prs.QuorumActive() {
 			r.logger.Warningf("%x stepped down to follower since quorum is not active", r.id)
 			r.becomeFollower(r.Term, None)
@@ -1104,6 +1109,9 @@ func stepLeader(r *raft, m pb.Message) error {
 	}
 	switch m.Type {
 	case pb.MsgAppResp:
+		// NB: this code path is also hit from (*raft).advance, where the leader steps
+		// an MsgAppResp to acknowledge the appended entries in the last Ready.
+
 		pr.RecentActive = true
 
 		if m.Reject {
@@ -1272,7 +1280,9 @@ func stepLeader(r *raft, m pb.Message) error {
 				// replicate, or when freeTo() covers multiple messages). If
 				// we have more entries to send, send as many messages as we
 				// can (without sending empty messages for the commit index)
-				for r.maybeSendAppend(m.From, false) {
+				if r.id != m.From {
+					for r.maybeSendAppend(m.From, false) {
+					}
 				}
 				// Transfer leadership is in progress.
 				if m.From == r.leadTransferee && pr.Match == r.raftLog.lastIndex() {
@@ -1811,6 +1821,11 @@ func numOfPendingConf(ents []pb.Entry) int {
 }
 
 func releasePendingReadIndexMessages(r *raft) {
+	if len(r.pendingReadIndexMessages) == 0 {
+		// Fast path for the common case to avoid a call to storage.LastIndex()
+		// via committedEntryInCurrentTerm.
+		return
+	}
 	if !r.committedEntryInCurrentTerm() {
 		r.logger.Error("pending MsgReadIndex should be released only after first commit in current term")
 		return
diff --git a/raft/raft_paper_test.go b/raft/raft_paper_test.go
index 9577823d426..84c451cdf2d 100644
--- a/raft/raft_paper_test.go
+++ b/raft/raft_paper_test.go
@@ -473,9 +473,9 @@ func TestLeaderCommitEntry(t *testing.T) {
 // Reference: section 5.3
 func TestLeaderAcknowledgeCommit(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
-		size      int
-		acceptors map[uint64]bool
-		wack      bool
+		size               int
+		nonLeaderAcceptors map[uint64]bool
+		wack               bool
 	}{
 		{1, nil, true},
 		{3, nil, false},
@@ -496,8 +496,11 @@ func TestLeaderAcknowledgeCommit(t *testing.T) {
 		li := r.raftLog.lastIndex()
 		r.Step(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: []byte("some data")}}})
 
-		for _, m := range r.readMessages() {
-			if tt.acceptors[m.To] {
+		rd := newReady(r, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+		s.Append(rd.Entries)
+		r.advance(rd) // simulate having appended entry on leader
+		for _, m := range rd.Messages {
+			if tt.nonLeaderAcceptors[m.To] {
 				r.Step(acceptAndReply(m))
 			}
 		}
@@ -891,6 +894,9 @@ func TestLeaderOnlyCommitsLogFromCurrentTerm(t *testing.T) {
 		r.Step(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{}}})
 
 		r.Step(pb.Message{From: 2, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgAppResp, Term: r.Term, Index: tt.index})
+		rd := newReady(r, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+		storage.Append(rd.Entries)
+		r.advance(rd)
 		if r.raftLog.committed != tt.wcommit {
 			t.Errorf("#%d: commit = %d, want %d", i, r.raftLog.committed, tt.wcommit)
 		}
diff --git a/raft/raft_test.go b/raft/raft_test.go
index 945611a50e5..e45533d8d03 100644
--- a/raft/raft_test.go
+++ b/raft/raft_test.go
@@ -29,13 +29,15 @@ import (
 
 // nextEnts returns the appliable entries and updates the applied index
 func nextEnts(r *raft, s *MemoryStorage) (ents []pb.Entry) {
-	// Transfer all unstable entries to "stable" storage.
-	s.Append(r.raftLog.unstableEntries())
-	r.raftLog.stableTo(r.raftLog.lastIndex(), r.raftLog.lastTerm())
-
-	ents = r.raftLog.nextEnts()
-	r.raftLog.appliedTo(r.raftLog.committed)
-	return ents
+	for {
+		rd := newReady(r, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+		s.Append(rd.Entries)
+		r.advance(rd)
+		if len(rd.Entries)+len(rd.CommittedEntries) == 0 {
+			return ents
+		}
+		ents = append(ents, rd.CommittedEntries...)
+	}
 }
 
 func mustAppendEntry(r *raft, ents ...pb.Entry) {
@@ -57,21 +59,33 @@ func (r *raft) readMessages() []pb.Message {
 }
 
 func TestProgressLeader(t *testing.T) {
-	r := newTestRaft(1, 5, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2)))
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2))
+	r := newTestRaft(1, 5, 1, s)
 	r.becomeCandidate()
 	r.becomeLeader()
 	r.prs.Progress[2].BecomeReplicate()
 
-	// Send proposals to r1. The first 5 entries should be appended to the log.
+	// Send proposals to r1. The first 5 entries should be queued in the unstable log.
 	propMsg := pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: []byte("foo")}}}
 	for i := 0; i < 5; i++ {
-		if pr := r.prs.Progress[r.id]; pr.State != tracker.StateReplicate || pr.Match != uint64(i+1) || pr.Next != pr.Match+1 {
-			t.Errorf("unexpected progress %v", pr)
-		}
 		if err := r.Step(propMsg); err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("proposal resulted in error: %v", err)
 		}
 	}
+	if m := r.prs.Progress[1].Match; m != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("expected zero match, got %d", m)
+	}
+	rd := newReady(r, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+	if len(rd.Entries) != 6 || len(rd.Entries[0].Data) > 0 || string(rd.Entries[5].Data) != "foo" {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected Entries: %s", DescribeReady(rd, nil))
+	}
+	r.advance(rd)
+	if m := r.prs.Progress[1].Match; m != 6 {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected Match %d", m)
+	}
+	if m := r.prs.Progress[1].Next; m != 7 {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected Next %d", m)
+	}
 }
 
 // TestProgressResumeByHeartbeatResp ensures raft.heartbeat reset progress.paused by heartbeat response.
@@ -663,10 +677,12 @@ func TestLogReplication(t *testing.T) {
 
 // TestLearnerLogReplication tests that a learner can receive entries from the leader.
 func TestLearnerLogReplication(t *testing.T) {
-	n1 := newTestLearnerRaft(1, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1), withLearners(2)))
+	s1 := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1), withLearners(2))
+	n1 := newTestLearnerRaft(1, 10, 1, s1)
 	n2 := newTestLearnerRaft(2, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1), withLearners(2)))
 
 	nt := newNetwork(n1, n2)
+	nt.t = t
 
 	n1.becomeFollower(1, None)
 	n2.becomeFollower(1, None)
@@ -686,12 +702,23 @@ func TestLearnerLogReplication(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Error("peer 2 state: not learner, want yes")
 	}
 
-	nextCommitted := n1.raftLog.committed + 1
-	nt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: []byte("somedata")}}})
+	nextCommitted := uint64(2)
+	{
+		nt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: []byte("somedata")}}})
+		rd := newReady(n1, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+		nt.send(rd.Messages...)
+		s1.Append(rd.Entries)
+		n1.advance(rd)
+	}
 	if n1.raftLog.committed != nextCommitted {
 		t.Errorf("peer 1 wants committed to %d, but still %d", nextCommitted, n1.raftLog.committed)
 	}
 
+	{
+		rd := newReady(n1, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+		nt.send(rd.Messages...)
+	}
+
 	if n1.raftLog.committed != n2.raftLog.committed {
 		t.Errorf("peer 2 wants committed to %d, but still %d", n1.raftLog.committed, n2.raftLog.committed)
 	}
@@ -703,11 +730,18 @@ func TestLearnerLogReplication(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestSingleNodeCommit(t *testing.T) {
-	tt := newNetwork(nil)
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
+	cfg := newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s)
+	r := newRaft(cfg)
+	tt := newNetwork(r)
 	tt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgHup})
 	tt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: []byte("some data")}}})
 	tt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: []byte("some data")}}})
 
+	rd := newReady(r, &SoftState{}, pb.HardState{})
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	r.advance(rd)
+
 	sm := tt.peers[1].(*raft)
 	if sm.raftLog.committed != 3 {
 		t.Errorf("committed = %d, want %d", sm.raftLog.committed, 3)
@@ -792,9 +826,12 @@ func TestCommitWithoutNewTermEntry(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestDuelingCandidates(t *testing.T) {
-	a := newTestRaft(1, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3)))
-	b := newTestRaft(2, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3)))
-	c := newTestRaft(3, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3)))
+	s1 := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3))
+	s2 := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3))
+	s3 := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3))
+	a := newTestRaft(1, 10, 1, s1)
+	b := newTestRaft(2, 10, 1, s2)
+	c := newTestRaft(3, 10, 1, s3)
 
 	nt := newNetwork(a, b, c)
 	nt.cut(1, 3)
@@ -820,21 +857,19 @@ func TestDuelingCandidates(t *testing.T) {
 	// we expect it to disrupt the leader 1 since it has a higher term
 	// 3 will be follower again since both 1 and 2 rejects its vote request since 3 does not have a long enough log
 	nt.send(pb.Message{From: 3, To: 3, Type: pb.MsgHup})
-
-	wlog := &raftLog{
-		storage:   &MemoryStorage{ents: []pb.Entry{{}, {Data: nil, Term: 1, Index: 1}}},
-		committed: 1,
-		unstable:  unstable{offset: 2},
+	if sm.state != StateFollower {
+		t.Errorf("state = %s, want %s", sm.state, StateFollower)
 	}
+
 	tests := []struct {
-		sm      *raft
-		state   StateType
-		term    uint64
-		raftLog *raftLog
+		sm        *raft
+		state     StateType
+		term      uint64
+		lastIndex uint64
 	}{
-		{a, StateFollower, 2, wlog},
-		{b, StateFollower, 2, wlog},
-		{c, StateFollower, 2, newLog(NewMemoryStorage(), raftLogger)},
+		{a, StateFollower, 2, 1},
+		{b, StateFollower, 2, 1},
+		{c, StateFollower, 2, 0},
 	}
 
 	for i, tt := range tests {
@@ -844,14 +879,8 @@ func TestDuelingCandidates(t *testing.T) {
 		if g := tt.sm.Term; g != tt.term {
 			t.Errorf("#%d: term = %d, want %d", i, g, tt.term)
 		}
-		base := ltoa(tt.raftLog)
-		if sm, ok := nt.peers[1+uint64(i)].(*raft); ok {
-			l := ltoa(sm.raftLog)
-			if g := diffu(base, l); g != "" {
-				t.Errorf("#%d: diff:\n%s", i, g)
-			}
-		} else {
-			t.Logf("#%d: empty log", i)
+		if exp, act := tt.lastIndex, tt.sm.raftLog.lastIndex(); exp != act {
+			t.Errorf("#%d: last index exp = %d, act = %d", i, exp, act)
 		}
 	}
 }
@@ -868,6 +897,7 @@ func TestDuelingPreCandidates(t *testing.T) {
 	c := newRaft(cfgC)
 
 	nt := newNetwork(a, b, c)
+	nt.t = t
 	nt.cut(1, 3)
 
 	nt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgHup})
@@ -891,20 +921,15 @@ func TestDuelingPreCandidates(t *testing.T) {
 	// With PreVote, it does not disrupt the leader.
 	nt.send(pb.Message{From: 3, To: 3, Type: pb.MsgHup})
 
-	wlog := &raftLog{
-		storage:   &MemoryStorage{ents: []pb.Entry{{}, {Data: nil, Term: 1, Index: 1}}},
-		committed: 1,
-		unstable:  unstable{offset: 2},
-	}
 	tests := []struct {
-		sm      *raft
-		state   StateType
-		term    uint64
-		raftLog *raftLog
+		sm        *raft
+		state     StateType
+		term      uint64
+		lastIndex uint64
 	}{
-		{a, StateLeader, 1, wlog},
-		{b, StateFollower, 1, wlog},
-		{c, StateFollower, 1, newLog(NewMemoryStorage(), raftLogger)},
+		{a, StateLeader, 1, 1},
+		{b, StateFollower, 1, 1},
+		{c, StateFollower, 1, 0},
 	}
 
 	for i, tt := range tests {
@@ -914,14 +939,8 @@ func TestDuelingPreCandidates(t *testing.T) {
 		if g := tt.sm.Term; g != tt.term {
 			t.Errorf("#%d: term = %d, want %d", i, g, tt.term)
 		}
-		base := ltoa(tt.raftLog)
-		if sm, ok := nt.peers[1+uint64(i)].(*raft); ok {
-			l := ltoa(sm.raftLog)
-			if g := diffu(base, l); g != "" {
-				t.Errorf("#%d: diff:\n%s", i, g)
-			}
-		} else {
-			t.Logf("#%d: empty log", i)
+		if exp, act := tt.lastIndex, tt.sm.raftLog.lastIndex(); exp != act {
+			t.Errorf("#%d: last index is %d, exp %d", i, act, exp)
 		}
 	}
 }
@@ -1058,6 +1077,7 @@ func TestProposal(t *testing.T) {
 		// promote 1 to become leader
 		send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgHup})
 		send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: data}}})
+		r := tt.network.peers[1].(*raft)
 
 		wantLog := newLog(NewMemoryStorage(), raftLogger)
 		if tt.success {
@@ -1065,8 +1085,8 @@ func TestProposal(t *testing.T) {
 				storage: &MemoryStorage{
 					ents: []pb.Entry{{}, {Data: nil, Term: 1, Index: 1}, {Term: 1, Index: 2, Data: data}},
 				},
-				unstable:  unstable{offset: 3},
-				committed: 2}
+				unstable: unstable{offset: 3},
+			}
 		}
 		base := ltoa(wantLog)
 		for i, p := range tt.peers {
@@ -1079,8 +1099,7 @@ func TestProposal(t *testing.T) {
 				t.Logf("#%d: peer %d empty log", j, i)
 			}
 		}
-		sm := tt.network.peers[1].(*raft)
-		if g := sm.Term; g != 1 {
+		if g := r.Term; g != 1 {
 			t.Errorf("#%d: term = %d, want %d", j, g, 1)
 		}
 	}
@@ -1405,14 +1424,14 @@ func TestRaftFreesReadOnlyMem(t *testing.T) {
 // TestMsgAppRespWaitReset verifies the resume behavior of a leader
 // MsgAppResp.
 func TestMsgAppRespWaitReset(t *testing.T) {
-	sm := newTestRaft(1, 5, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3)))
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3))
+	sm := newTestRaft(1, 5, 1, s)
 	sm.becomeCandidate()
 	sm.becomeLeader()
 
-	// The new leader has just emitted a new Term 4 entry; consume those messages
-	// from the outgoing queue.
-	sm.bcastAppend()
-	sm.readMessages()
+	// Run n1 which includes sending a message like the below
+	// one to n2, but also appending to its own log.
+	nextEnts(sm, s)
 
 	// Node 2 acks the first entry, making it committed.
 	sm.Step(pb.Message{
@@ -2228,7 +2247,8 @@ func TestReadOnlyOptionSafe(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestReadOnlyWithLearner(t *testing.T) {
-	a := newTestLearnerRaft(1, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1), withLearners(2)))
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1), withLearners(2))
+	a := newTestLearnerRaft(1, 10, 1, s)
 	b := newTestLearnerRaft(2, 10, 1, newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1), withLearners(2)))
 
 	nt := newNetwork(a, b)
@@ -2258,6 +2278,7 @@ func TestReadOnlyWithLearner(t *testing.T) {
 	for i, tt := range tests {
 		for j := 0; j < tt.proposals; j++ {
 			nt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgProp, Entries: []pb.Entry{{}}})
+			nextEnts(a, s) // append the entries on the leader
 		}
 
 		nt.send(pb.Message{From: tt.sm.id, To: tt.sm.id, Type: pb.MsgReadIndex, Entries: []pb.Entry{{Data: tt.wctx}}})
@@ -3634,13 +3655,17 @@ func TestLeaderTransferTimeout(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestLeaderTransferIgnoreProposal(t *testing.T) {
-	nt := newNetwork(nil, nil, nil)
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1, 2, 3))
+	r := newTestRaft(1, 10, 1, s)
+	nt := newNetwork(r, nil, nil)
 	nt.send(pb.Message{From: 1, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgHup})
 
 	nt.isolate(3)
 
 	lead := nt.peers[1].(*raft)
 
+	nextEnts(r, s) // handle empty entry
+
 	// Transfer leadership to isolated node to let transfer pending, then send proposal.
 	nt.send(pb.Message{From: 3, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgTransferLeader})
 	if lead.leadTransferee != 3 {
@@ -4630,6 +4655,8 @@ func votedWithConfig(configFunc func(*Config), vote, term uint64) *raft {
 }
 
 type network struct {
+	t *testing.T // optional
+
 	peers   map[uint64]stateMachine
 	storage map[uint64]*MemoryStorage
 	dropm   map[connem]float64
@@ -4713,6 +4740,9 @@ func (nw *network) send(msgs ...pb.Message) {
 	for len(msgs) > 0 {
 		m := msgs[0]
 		p := nw.peers[m.To]
+		if nw.t != nil {
+			nw.t.Log(DescribeMessage(m, nil))
+		}
 		p.Step(m)
 		msgs = append(msgs[1:], nw.filter(p.readMessages())...)
 	}
diff --git a/raft/rawnode_test.go b/raft/rawnode_test.go
index 535152e14c2..e209b3277b3 100644
--- a/raft/rawnode_test.go
+++ b/raft/rawnode_test.go
@@ -388,122 +388,125 @@ func TestRawNodeJointAutoLeave(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	exp2Cs := pb.ConfState{Voters: []uint64{1}, Learners: []uint64{2}}
 
-	t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
-		s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
-		rawNode, err := NewRawNode(newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s))
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
+	rawNode, err := NewRawNode(newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s))
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
 
-		rawNode.Campaign()
-		proposed := false
-		var (
-			lastIndex uint64
-			ccdata    []byte
-		)
-		// Propose the ConfChange, wait until it applies, save the resulting
-		// ConfState.
-		var cs *pb.ConfState
-		for cs == nil {
-			rd := rawNode.Ready()
-			s.Append(rd.Entries)
-			for _, ent := range rd.CommittedEntries {
-				var cc pb.ConfChangeI
-				if ent.Type == pb.EntryConfChangeV2 {
-					var ccc pb.ConfChangeV2
-					if err = ccc.Unmarshal(ent.Data); err != nil {
-						t.Fatal(err)
-					}
-					cc = &ccc
-				}
-				if cc != nil {
-					// Force it step down.
-					rawNode.Step(pb.Message{Type: pb.MsgHeartbeatResp, From: 1, Term: rawNode.raft.Term + 1})
-					cs = rawNode.ApplyConfChange(cc)
-				}
-			}
-			rawNode.Advance(rd)
-			// Once we are the leader, propose a command and a ConfChange.
-			if !proposed && rd.SoftState.Lead == rawNode.raft.id {
-				if err = rawNode.Propose([]byte("somedata")); err != nil {
-					t.Fatal(err)
-				}
-				ccdata, err = testCc.Marshal()
-				if err != nil {
+	rawNode.Campaign()
+	proposed := false
+	var (
+		lastIndex uint64
+		ccdata    []byte
+	)
+	// Propose the ConfChange, wait until it applies, save the resulting
+	// ConfState.
+	var cs *pb.ConfState
+	for cs == nil {
+		rd := rawNode.Ready()
+		s.Append(rd.Entries)
+		for _, ent := range rd.CommittedEntries {
+			var cc pb.ConfChangeI
+			if ent.Type == pb.EntryConfChangeV2 {
+				var ccc pb.ConfChangeV2
+				if err = ccc.Unmarshal(ent.Data); err != nil {
 					t.Fatal(err)
 				}
-				rawNode.ProposeConfChange(testCc)
-				proposed = true
+				cc = &ccc
+			}
+			if cc != nil {
+				// Force it step down.
+				rawNode.Step(pb.Message{Type: pb.MsgHeartbeatResp, From: 1, Term: rawNode.raft.Term + 1})
+				cs = rawNode.ApplyConfChange(cc)
 			}
 		}
-
-		// Check that the last index is exactly the conf change we put in,
-		// down to the bits. Note that this comes from the Storage, which
-		// will not reflect any unstable entries that we'll only be presented
-		// with in the next Ready.
-		lastIndex, err = s.LastIndex()
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
+		rawNode.Advance(rd)
+		// Once we are the leader, propose a command and a ConfChange.
+		if !proposed && rd.SoftState.Lead == rawNode.raft.id {
+			if err = rawNode.Propose([]byte("somedata")); err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+			ccdata, err = testCc.Marshal()
+			if err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+			rawNode.ProposeConfChange(testCc)
+			proposed = true
 		}
+	}
 
-		entries, err := s.Entries(lastIndex-1, lastIndex+1, noLimit)
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-		if len(entries) != 2 {
-			t.Fatalf("len(entries) = %d, want %d", len(entries), 2)
-		}
-		if !bytes.Equal(entries[0].Data, []byte("somedata")) {
-			t.Errorf("entries[0].Data = %v, want %v", entries[0].Data, []byte("somedata"))
-		}
-		if entries[1].Type != pb.EntryConfChangeV2 {
-			t.Fatalf("type = %v, want %v", entries[1].Type, pb.EntryConfChangeV2)
-		}
-		if !bytes.Equal(entries[1].Data, ccdata) {
-			t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", entries[1].Data, ccdata)
-		}
+	// Check that the last index is exactly the conf change we put in,
+	// down to the bits. Note that this comes from the Storage, which
+	// will not reflect any unstable entries that we'll only be presented
+	// with in the next Ready.
+	lastIndex, err = s.LastIndex()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
 
-		if !reflect.DeepEqual(&expCs, cs) {
-			t.Fatalf("exp:\n%+v\nact:\n%+v", expCs, cs)
-		}
+	entries, err := s.Entries(lastIndex-1, lastIndex+1, noLimit)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(entries) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("len(entries) = %d, want %d", len(entries), 2)
+	}
+	if !bytes.Equal(entries[0].Data, []byte("somedata")) {
+		t.Errorf("entries[0].Data = %v, want %v", entries[0].Data, []byte("somedata"))
+	}
+	if entries[1].Type != pb.EntryConfChangeV2 {
+		t.Fatalf("type = %v, want %v", entries[1].Type, pb.EntryConfChangeV2)
+	}
+	if !bytes.Equal(entries[1].Data, ccdata) {
+		t.Errorf("data = %v, want %v", entries[1].Data, ccdata)
+	}
 
-		if rawNode.raft.pendingConfIndex != 0 {
-			t.Fatalf("pendingConfIndex: expected %d, got %d", 0, rawNode.raft.pendingConfIndex)
-		}
+	if !reflect.DeepEqual(&expCs, cs) {
+		t.Fatalf("exp:\n%+v\nact:\n%+v", expCs, cs)
+	}
 
-		// Move the RawNode along. It should not leave joint because it's follower.
-		rd := rawNode.readyWithoutAccept()
-		// Check that the right ConfChange comes out.
-		if len(rd.Entries) != 0 {
-			t.Fatalf("expected zero entry, got %+v", rd)
-		}
+	if rawNode.raft.pendingConfIndex != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("pendingConfIndex: expected %d, got %d", 0, rawNode.raft.pendingConfIndex)
+	}
 
-		// Make it leader again. It should leave joint automatically after moving apply index.
-		rawNode.Campaign()
-		rd = rawNode.Ready()
-		s.Append(rd.Entries)
-		rawNode.Advance(rd)
-		rd = rawNode.Ready()
-		s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	// Move the RawNode along. It should not leave joint because it's follower.
+	rd := rawNode.readyWithoutAccept()
+	// Check that the right ConfChange comes out.
+	if len(rd.Entries) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("expected zero entry, got %+v", rd)
+	}
 
-		// Check that the right ConfChange comes out.
-		if len(rd.Entries) != 1 || rd.Entries[0].Type != pb.EntryConfChangeV2 {
-			t.Fatalf("expected exactly one more entry, got %+v", rd)
-		}
-		var cc pb.ConfChangeV2
-		if err := cc.Unmarshal(rd.Entries[0].Data); err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-		if !reflect.DeepEqual(cc, pb.ConfChangeV2{Context: nil}) {
-			t.Fatalf("expected zero ConfChangeV2, got %+v", cc)
-		}
-		// Lie and pretend the ConfChange applied. It won't do so because now
-		// we require the joint quorum and we're only running one node.
-		cs = rawNode.ApplyConfChange(cc)
-		if exp := exp2Cs; !reflect.DeepEqual(&exp, cs) {
-			t.Fatalf("exp:\n%+v\nact:\n%+v", exp, cs)
-		}
-	})
+	// Make it leader again. It should leave joint automatically after moving apply index.
+	rawNode.Campaign()
+	rd = rawNode.Ready()
+	t.Log(DescribeReady(rd, nil))
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	rawNode.Advance(rd)
+	rd = rawNode.Ready()
+	t.Log(DescribeReady(rd, nil))
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	rawNode.Advance(rd)
+	rd = rawNode.Ready()
+	t.Log(DescribeReady(rd, nil))
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	// Check that the right ConfChange comes out.
+	if len(rd.Entries) != 1 || rd.Entries[0].Type != pb.EntryConfChangeV2 {
+		t.Fatalf("expected exactly one more entry, got %+v", rd)
+	}
+	var cc pb.ConfChangeV2
+	if err := cc.Unmarshal(rd.Entries[0].Data); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if !reflect.DeepEqual(cc, pb.ConfChangeV2{Context: nil}) {
+		t.Fatalf("expected zero ConfChangeV2, got %+v", cc)
+	}
+	// Lie and pretend the ConfChange applied. It won't do so because now
+	// we require the joint quorum and we're only running one node.
+	cs = rawNode.ApplyConfChange(cc)
+	if exp := exp2Cs; !reflect.DeepEqual(&exp, cs) {
+		t.Fatalf("exp:\n%+v\nact:\n%+v", exp, cs)
+	}
 }
 
 // TestRawNodeProposeAddDuplicateNode ensures that two proposes to add the same node should
@@ -656,18 +659,16 @@ func TestRawNodeReadIndex(t *testing.T) {
 // requires the application to bootstrap the state, i.e. it does not accept peers
 // and will not create faux configuration change entries.
 func TestRawNodeStart(t *testing.T) {
+	entries := []pb.Entry{
+		{Term: 1, Index: 2, Data: nil},           // empty entry
+		{Term: 1, Index: 3, Data: []byte("foo")}, // empty entry
+	}
 	want := Ready{
-		SoftState: &SoftState{Lead: 1, RaftState: StateLeader},
-		HardState: pb.HardState{Term: 1, Commit: 3, Vote: 1},
-		Entries: []pb.Entry{
-			{Term: 1, Index: 2, Data: nil},           // empty entry
-			{Term: 1, Index: 3, Data: []byte("foo")}, // empty entry
-		},
-		CommittedEntries: []pb.Entry{
-			{Term: 1, Index: 2, Data: nil},           // empty entry
-			{Term: 1, Index: 3, Data: []byte("foo")}, // empty entry
-		},
-		MustSync: true,
+		SoftState:        &SoftState{Lead: 1, RaftState: StateLeader},
+		HardState:        pb.HardState{Term: 1, Commit: 3, Vote: 1},
+		Entries:          nil, // emitted & checked in intermediate Ready cycle
+		CommittedEntries: entries,
+		MustSync:         false, // since we're only applying, not appending
 	}
 
 	storage := NewMemoryStorage()
@@ -747,9 +748,24 @@ func TestRawNodeStart(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatal("expected a Ready")
 	}
 	rd := rawNode.Ready()
+	if !reflect.DeepEqual(entries, rd.Entries) {
+		t.Fatalf("expected to see entries\n%s, not\n%s", DescribeEntries(entries, nil), DescribeEntries(rd.Entries, nil))
+	}
 	storage.Append(rd.Entries)
 	rawNode.Advance(rd)
 
+	if !rawNode.HasReady() {
+		t.Fatal("expected a Ready")
+	}
+	rd = rawNode.Ready()
+	if len(rd.Entries) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected entries: %s", DescribeEntries(rd.Entries, nil))
+	}
+	if rd.MustSync {
+		t.Fatalf("should not need to sync")
+	}
+	rawNode.Advance(rd)
+
 	rd.SoftState, want.SoftState = nil, nil
 
 	if !reflect.DeepEqual(rd, want) {
@@ -868,17 +884,17 @@ func TestRawNodeStatus(t *testing.T) {
 // TestNodeCommitPaginationAfterRestart. The anomaly here was even worse as the
 // Raft group would forget to apply entries:
 //
-// - node learns that index 11 is committed
-// - nextEnts returns index 1..10 in CommittedEntries (but index 10 already
-//   exceeds maxBytes), which isn't noticed internally by Raft
-// - Commit index gets bumped to 10
-// - the node persists the HardState, but crashes before applying the entries
-// - upon restart, the storage returns the same entries, but `slice` takes a
-//   different code path and removes the last entry.
-// - Raft does not emit a HardState, but when the app calls Advance(), it bumps
-//   its internal applied index cursor to 10 (when it should be 9)
-// - the next Ready asks the app to apply index 11 (omitting index 10), losing a
-//    write.
+//   - node learns that index 11 is committed
+//   - nextEnts returns index 1..10 in CommittedEntries (but index 10 already
+//     exceeds maxBytes), which isn't noticed internally by Raft
+//   - Commit index gets bumped to 10
+//   - the node persists the HardState, but crashes before applying the entries
+//   - upon restart, the storage returns the same entries, but `slice` takes a
+//     different code path and removes the last entry.
+//   - Raft does not emit a HardState, but when the app calls Advance(), it bumps
+//     its internal applied index cursor to 10 (when it should be 9)
+//   - the next Ready asks the app to apply index 11 (omitting index 10), losing a
+//     write.
 func TestRawNodeCommitPaginationAfterRestart(t *testing.T) {
 	s := &ignoreSizeHintMemStorage{
 		MemoryStorage: newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1)),
@@ -952,6 +968,7 @@ func TestRawNodeBoundedLogGrowthWithPartition(t *testing.T) {
 	data := []byte("testdata")
 	testEntry := pb.Entry{Data: data}
 	maxEntrySize := uint64(maxEntries * PayloadSize(testEntry))
+	t.Log("maxEntrySize", maxEntrySize)
 
 	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(1))
 	cfg := newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s)
@@ -960,20 +977,16 @@ func TestRawNodeBoundedLogGrowthWithPartition(t *testing.T) {
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	rd := rawNode.Ready()
-	s.Append(rd.Entries)
-	rawNode.Advance(rd)
 
-	// Become the leader.
+	// Become the leader and apply empty entry.
 	rawNode.Campaign()
 	for {
-		rd = rawNode.Ready()
+		rd := rawNode.Ready()
 		s.Append(rd.Entries)
-		if rd.SoftState.Lead == rawNode.raft.id {
-			rawNode.Advance(rd)
+		rawNode.Advance(rd)
+		if len(rd.CommittedEntries) > 0 {
 			break
 		}
-		rawNode.Advance(rd)
 	}
 
 	// Simulate a network partition while we make our proposals by never
@@ -995,12 +1008,25 @@ func TestRawNodeBoundedLogGrowthWithPartition(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// Recover from the partition. The uncommitted tail of the Raft log should
 	// disappear as entries are committed.
+	rd := rawNode.Ready()
+	if len(rd.Entries) != maxEntries {
+		t.Fatalf("expected %d entries, got %d", maxEntries, len(rd.Entries))
+	}
+	s.Append(rd.Entries)
+	rawNode.Advance(rd)
+
+	// Entries are appended, but not applied.
+	checkUncommitted(maxEntrySize)
+
 	rd = rawNode.Ready()
+	if len(rd.Entries) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("unexpected entries: %s", DescribeEntries(rd.Entries, nil))
+	}
 	if len(rd.CommittedEntries) != maxEntries {
 		t.Fatalf("expected %d entries, got %d", maxEntries, len(rd.CommittedEntries))
 	}
-	s.Append(rd.Entries)
 	rawNode.Advance(rd)
+
 	checkUncommitted(0)
 }
 
@@ -1105,3 +1131,104 @@ func TestRawNodeConsumeReady(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatalf("expected only m2 in raft.msgs, got %+v", rn.raft.msgs)
 	}
 }
+
+func BenchmarkRawNode(b *testing.B) {
+	cases := []struct {
+		name  string
+		peers []uint64
+	}{
+		{
+			name:  "single-voter",
+			peers: []uint64{1},
+		},
+		{
+			name:  "two-voters",
+			peers: []uint64{1, 2},
+		},
+		// You can easily add more cases here.
+	}
+
+	for _, tc := range cases {
+		b.Run(tc.name, func(b *testing.B) {
+			benchmarkRawNodeImpl(b, tc.peers...)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func benchmarkRawNodeImpl(b *testing.B, peers ...uint64) {
+
+	const debug = false
+
+	s := newTestMemoryStorage(withPeers(peers...))
+	cfg := newTestConfig(1, 10, 1, s)
+	if !debug {
+		cfg.Logger = discardLogger // avoid distorting benchmark output
+	}
+	rn, err := NewRawNode(cfg)
+	if err != nil {
+		b.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
+	run := make(chan struct{}, 1)
+	defer close(run)
+
+	var numReady uint64
+	stabilize := func() (applied uint64) {
+		for rn.HasReady() {
+			numReady++
+			rd := rn.Ready()
+			if debug {
+				b.Log(DescribeReady(rd, nil))
+			}
+			if n := len(rd.CommittedEntries); n > 0 {
+				applied = rd.CommittedEntries[n-1].Index
+			}
+			s.Append(rd.Entries)
+			for _, m := range rd.Messages {
+				if m.Type == pb.MsgVote {
+					resp := pb.Message{To: m.From, From: m.To, Term: m.Term, Type: pb.MsgVoteResp}
+					if debug {
+						b.Log(DescribeMessage(resp, nil))
+					}
+					rn.Step(resp)
+				}
+				if m.Type == pb.MsgApp {
+					idx := m.Index
+					if n := len(m.Entries); n > 0 {
+						idx = m.Entries[n-1].Index
+					}
+					resp := pb.Message{To: m.From, From: m.To, Type: pb.MsgAppResp, Term: m.Term, Index: idx}
+					if debug {
+						b.Log(DescribeMessage(resp, nil))
+					}
+					rn.Step(resp)
+				}
+			}
+			rn.Advance(rd)
+		}
+		return applied
+	}
+
+	rn.Campaign()
+	stabilize()
+
+	if debug {
+		b.N = 1
+	}
+
+	var applied uint64
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		if err := rn.Propose([]byte("foo")); err != nil {
+			b.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		applied = stabilize()
+	}
+	if applied < uint64(b.N) {
+		b.Fatalf("did not apply everything: %d < %d", applied, b.N)
+	}
+	b.ReportMetric(float64(s.callStats.firstIndex)/float64(b.N), "firstIndex/op")
+	b.ReportMetric(float64(s.callStats.lastIndex)/float64(b.N), "lastIndex/op")
+	b.ReportMetric(float64(s.callStats.term)/float64(b.N), "term/op")
+	b.ReportMetric(float64(numReady)/float64(b.N), "ready/op")
+	b.Logf("storage access stats: %+v", s.callStats)
+}
diff --git a/raft/storage.go b/raft/storage.go
index 8b16d4fa24f..67ec16b13aa 100644
--- a/raft/storage.go
+++ b/raft/storage.go
@@ -71,6 +71,10 @@ type Storage interface {
 	Snapshot() (pb.Snapshot, error)
 }
 
+type inMemStorageCallStats struct {
+	initialState, firstIndex, lastIndex, entries, term, snapshot int
+}
+
 // MemoryStorage implements the Storage interface backed by an
 // in-memory array.
 type MemoryStorage struct {
@@ -83,6 +87,8 @@ type MemoryStorage struct {
 	snapshot  pb.Snapshot
 	// ents[i] has raft log position i+snapshot.Metadata.Index
 	ents []pb.Entry
+
+	callStats inMemStorageCallStats
 }
 
 // NewMemoryStorage creates an empty MemoryStorage.
@@ -95,6 +101,7 @@ func NewMemoryStorage() *MemoryStorage {
 
 // InitialState implements the Storage interface.
 func (ms *MemoryStorage) InitialState() (pb.HardState, pb.ConfState, error) {
+	ms.callStats.initialState++
 	return ms.hardState, ms.snapshot.Metadata.ConfState, nil
 }
 
@@ -110,6 +117,7 @@ func (ms *MemoryStorage) SetHardState(st pb.HardState) error {
 func (ms *MemoryStorage) Entries(lo, hi, maxSize uint64) ([]pb.Entry, error) {
 	ms.Lock()
 	defer ms.Unlock()
+	ms.callStats.entries++
 	offset := ms.ents[0].Index
 	if lo <= offset {
 		return nil, ErrCompacted
@@ -130,6 +138,7 @@ func (ms *MemoryStorage) Entries(lo, hi, maxSize uint64) ([]pb.Entry, error) {
 func (ms *MemoryStorage) Term(i uint64) (uint64, error) {
 	ms.Lock()
 	defer ms.Unlock()
+	ms.callStats.term++
 	offset := ms.ents[0].Index
 	if i < offset {
 		return 0, ErrCompacted
@@ -144,6 +153,7 @@ func (ms *MemoryStorage) Term(i uint64) (uint64, error) {
 func (ms *MemoryStorage) LastIndex() (uint64, error) {
 	ms.Lock()
 	defer ms.Unlock()
+	ms.callStats.lastIndex++
 	return ms.lastIndex(), nil
 }
 
@@ -155,6 +165,7 @@ func (ms *MemoryStorage) lastIndex() uint64 {
 func (ms *MemoryStorage) FirstIndex() (uint64, error) {
 	ms.Lock()
 	defer ms.Unlock()
+	ms.callStats.firstIndex++
 	return ms.firstIndex(), nil
 }
 
@@ -166,6 +177,7 @@ func (ms *MemoryStorage) firstIndex() uint64 {
 func (ms *MemoryStorage) Snapshot() (pb.Snapshot, error) {
 	ms.Lock()
 	defer ms.Unlock()
+	ms.callStats.snapshot++
 	return ms.snapshot, nil
 }
 
diff --git a/raft/testdata/confchange_v1_add_single.txt b/raft/testdata/confchange_v1_add_single.txt
index d9cc1a7b1c6..cd07af47944 100644
--- a/raft/testdata/confchange_v1_add_single.txt
+++ b/raft/testdata/confchange_v1_add_single.txt
@@ -35,10 +35,13 @@ stabilize
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   Lead:1 State:StateLeader
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:2
   Entries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChange v2
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
   CommittedEntries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChange v2
diff --git a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_auto.txt b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_auto.txt
index 0a5e205bf0d..2419083f0e9 100644
--- a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_auto.txt
+++ b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_auto.txt
@@ -31,19 +31,24 @@ INFO 3 switched to configuration voters=()
 INFO 3 became follower at term 0
 INFO newRaft 3 [peers: [], term: 0, commit: 0, applied: 0, lastindex: 0, lastterm: 0]
 
-# n1 immediately gets to commit & apply the conf change using only itself. We see that
-# it starts transitioning out of that joint configuration (though we will only see that
-# proposal in the next ready handling loop, when it is emitted). We also see that this
-# is using joint consensus, which it has to since we're carrying out two additions at
-# once.
+# Process n1 once, so that it can append the entry.
 process-ready 1
 ----
 Ready MustSync=true:
 Lead:1 State:StateLeader
-HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
+HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:2
 Entries:
 1/3 EntryNormal ""
 1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2 v3
+
+# Now n1 applies the conf change. We see that it starts transitioning out of that joint
+# configuration (though we will only see that proposal in the next ready handling
+# loop, when it is emitted). We also see that this is using joint consensus, which
+# it has to since we're carrying out two additions at once.
+process-ready 1
+----
+Ready MustSync=false:
+HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
 CommittedEntries:
 1/3 EntryNormal ""
 1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2 v3
diff --git a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_implicit.txt b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_implicit.txt
index a93eb81cb52..45dfc5099b9 100644
--- a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_implicit.txt
+++ b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_double_implicit.txt
@@ -38,10 +38,13 @@ stabilize 1 2
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   Lead:1 State:StateLeader
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:2
   Entries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
   CommittedEntries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2
diff --git a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_auto.txt b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_auto.txt
index 47c7f10b8e8..7ee3ab6c33c 100644
--- a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_auto.txt
+++ b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_auto.txt
@@ -36,10 +36,13 @@ stabilize
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   Lead:1 State:StateLeader
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:2
   Entries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
   CommittedEntries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2
diff --git a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_explicit.txt b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_explicit.txt
index dd4a4f65467..b4e6e3a83cd 100644
--- a/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_explicit.txt
+++ b/raft/testdata/confchange_v2_add_single_explicit.txt
@@ -36,10 +36,13 @@ stabilize 1 2
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   Lead:1 State:StateLeader
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:2
   Entries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
   CommittedEntries:
   1/3 EntryNormal ""
   1/4 EntryConfChangeV2 v2
diff --git a/raft/testdata/single_node.txt b/raft/testdata/single_node.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..3b6e4f4c1dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/raft/testdata/single_node.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+log-level info
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 1 voters=(1) index=3
+----
+INFO 1 switched to configuration voters=(1)
+INFO 1 became follower at term 0
+INFO newRaft 1 [peers: [1], term: 0, commit: 3, applied: 3, lastindex: 3, lastterm: 1]
+
+campaign 1
+----
+INFO 1 is starting a new election at term 0
+INFO 1 became candidate at term 1
+INFO 1 received MsgVoteResp from 1 at term 1
+INFO 1 became leader at term 1
+
+stabilize
+----
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  Lead:1 State:StateLeader
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:3
+  Entries:
+  1/4 EntryNormal ""
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:4
+  CommittedEntries:
+  1/4 EntryNormal ""
diff --git a/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt b/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
index 96ded532cd7..dbbd5ce11d9 100644
--- a/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
+++ b/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ ok
 
 status 1
 ----
-1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 inactive
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 3: StateProbe match=0 next=11 paused inactive
 
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ stabilize 1
 
 status 1
 ----
-1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 inactive
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 3: StateSnapshot match=0 next=11 paused pendingSnap=11
 
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ stabilize 1
 
 status 1
 ----
-1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 inactive
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 3: StateReplicate match=11 next=12
 
diff --git a/raft/tracker/progress.go b/raft/tracker/progress.go
index a36e5261ac7..e37e4b63ff7 100644
--- a/raft/tracker/progress.go
+++ b/raft/tracker/progress.go
@@ -52,8 +52,7 @@ type Progress struct {
 	// RecentActive is true if the progress is recently active. Receiving any messages
 	// from the corresponding follower indicates the progress is active.
 	// RecentActive can be reset to false after an election timeout.
-	//
-	// TODO(tbg): the leader should always have this set to true.
+	// This is always true on the leader.
 	RecentActive bool
 
 	// ProbeSent is used while this follower is in StateProbe. When ProbeSent is