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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<meta name="author" content="Stéphane Lopes">
<title>Programmation orientée-objet</title>
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<body class="book toc2 toc-left">
<div id="header">
<h1>Programmation orientée-objet</h1>
<div class="details">
<span id="author" class="author">Stéphane Lopes</span><br>
<span id="email" class="email"><a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></span><br>
<span id="revnumber">version 2017-2018</span>
</div>
<div id="toc" class="toc2">
<div id="toctitle">Sommaire</div>
<ul class="sectlevel1">
<li><a href="#_introduction">1. Introduction</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_caractéristiques_des_langages_de_programmation">1.1. Caractéristiques des langages de programmation</a></li>
<li><a href="#_quelques_langages_de_programmation">1.2. Quelques langages de programmation</a></li>
<li><a href="#_Évolution_des_langages_de_programmation_impératifs">1.3. Évolution des langages de programmation impératifs</a></li>
<li><a href="#_le_langage_java">1.4. Le langage Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_python_refcard">1.5. Python RefCard</a></li>
<li><a href="#_références_poo_java">Références (POO/Java)</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_python">1.6. Exercices (Python)</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_vue_d_ensemble_des_concepts_objet">2. Vue d’ensemble des concepts objet</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_objet_et_message">2.1. Objet et message</a></li>
<li><a href="#_type_et_classe">2.2. Type et classe</a></li>
<li><a href="#_héritage">2.3. Héritage</a></li>
<li><a href="#_relations_entre_classes">2.4. Relations entre classes</a></li>
<li><a href="#_module">2.5. Module</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_python_2">2.6. Exercices (Python)</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_java">2.7. Exercices (Java)</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_objets_et_classes">3. Objets et classes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_caractéristiques_d_un_objet">3.1. Caractéristiques d’un objet</a></li>
<li><a href="#_les_objets_en_java">3.2. Les objets en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_les_chaînes_de_caractères_en_java">3.3. Les chaînes de caractères en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_caractéristiques_d_une_classe">3.4. Caractéristiques d’une classe</a></li>
<li><a href="#_les_classes_en_java">3.5. Les classes en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_métaclasse_et_membres_de_classe">3.6. Métaclasse et membres de classe</a></li>
<li><a href="#_membres_de_classe_en_java">3.7. Membres de classe en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_le_programme_principal_en_java">3.8. Le programme principal en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_Énumération_en_java">3.9. Énumération en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_généricité">3.10. Généricité</a></li>
<li><a href="#_généricité_en_java">3.11. Généricité en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_java_2">3.12. Exercices (Java)</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_héritage_3">4. Héritage</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_héritage_en_java">4.1. Héritage en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_polymorphisme_en_java">4.2. Polymorphisme en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_la_classe_code_object_code">4.3. La classe <code>Object</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#_classe_abstraite_en_java">4.4. Classe abstraite en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_la_classe_code_number_code">4.5. La classe <code>Number</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#_interface">4.6. Interface</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_java_3">4.7. Exercices (Java)</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_module_et_bibliothèques">5. Module et bibliothèques</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_module_en_java">5.1. Module en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_bibliothèques_en_java">5.2. Bibliothèques en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_java_4">5.3. Exercices (Java)</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_gestion_d_erreurs_et_exceptions">6. Gestion d’erreurs et exceptions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_les_erreurs_en_programmation">6.1. Les erreurs en programmation</a></li>
<li><a href="#_gestion_d_erreurs">6.2. Gestion d’erreurs</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exceptions">6.3. Exceptions</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exceptions_en_java">6.4. Exceptions en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices">6.5. Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_entrées_sorties_et_persistance">7. Entrées/sorties et persistance</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_entrées_sorties_flux_et_persistance">7.1. Entrées/sorties, flux et persistance</a></li>
<li><a href="#_i_o_en_java">7.2. I/O en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_utilisation_des_flux">7.3. Utilisation des flux</a></li>
<li><a href="#_sérialisation_en_java">7.4. Sérialisation en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_2">7.5. Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_gestion_des_collections">8. Gestion des collections</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_introduction_2">8.1. Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="#_interfaces">8.2. Interfaces</a></li>
<li><a href="#_implémentations_2">8.3. Implémentations</a></li>
<li><a href="#_algorithmes">8.4. Algorithmes</a></li>
<li><a href="#_mise_en_uvre">8.5. Mise en œuvre</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_3">8.6. Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_la_bibliothèques_em_streams_em_et_la_programmation_fonctionnelle_en_java">9. La bibliothèques <em>streams</em> et la programmation fonctionnelle en Java</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_introduction_3">9.1. Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="#_programmation_fonctionnelle_en_java">9.2. Programmation fonctionnelle en Java</a></li>
<li><a href="#_la_bibliothèque_streams">9.3. La bibliothèque streams</a></li>
<li><a href="#_exercices_4">9.4. Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_conclusion">10. Conclusion</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_bilan">10.1. Bilan</a></li>
<li><a href="#_conception_orientée_objet">10.2. Conception orientée-objet</a></li>
<li><a href="#_pour_aller_plus_loin">10.3. Pour aller plus loin…​</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<div class="sect1">
<h2 id="_introduction"><a class="anchor" href="#_introduction"></a><a class="link" href="#_introduction">1. Introduction</a></h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="_caractéristiques_des_langages_de_programmation"><a class="anchor" href="#_caractéristiques_des_langages_de_programmation"></a><a class="link" href="#_caractéristiques_des_langages_de_programmation">1.1. Caractéristiques des langages de programmation</a></h3>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_implémentation_des_langages"><a class="anchor" href="#_implémentation_des_langages"></a><a class="link" href="#_implémentation_des_langages">1.1.1. Implémentation des langages</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Avec un <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiled_language"><em>langage compilé</em></a>, le code source du programme est transformé en <em>code machine</em> par le <em>compilateur</em></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Dans un <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreted_language"><em>langage interprété</em></a>, le code source du programme est exécuté "à la volée" par l'<em>interpréteur</em></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Certains langages sont à la fois compilés et interprétés</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Il existe des approches intermédiaires (compilation <em>Just In Time</em> (JIT))</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_c_est_compilé"><a class="anchor" href="#_c_est_compilé"></a><a class="link" href="#_c_est_compilé">1.1.2. C est compilé</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Compilation séparée (produit <code>util.o</code> et <code>main.o</code>)</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">$ gcc -c util.c
$ gcc -c main.c</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Édition de liens (produit <code>monprog</code>)</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">$ gcc -o monprog main.o util.o</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title"><code>monprog</code> est exécutable</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">$ ./monprog</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_php_est_interprété"><a class="anchor" href="#_php_est_interprété"></a><a class="link" href="#_php_est_interprété">1.1.3. PHP est interprété</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Exécution d’un programme PHP</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">$ php monprog.php</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_java_est_compilé_puis_interprété_jit"><a class="anchor" href="#_java_est_compilé_puis_interprété_jit"></a><a class="link" href="#_java_est_compilé_puis_interprété_jit">1.1.4. Java est compilé puis interprété (JIT)</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Compilation en <em>bytecode</em> (produit Main.class)</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">$ javac Main.java</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Exécution avec la JVM (<em>Java Virtual Machine</em>)</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-bash hljs" data-lang="bash">$ java Main</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_langage_de_scripts"><a class="anchor" href="#_langage_de_scripts"></a><a class="link" href="#_langage_de_scripts">1.1.5. Langage de scripts</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Un <em>script</em> est un programme destiné à automatiser l’enchaînement de tâches dans un environnement particulier</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Un <em>langage de scripts</em> est un langage de programmation permettant de développer des scripts</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Il permet d’invoquer les primitives du système sous-jacent</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Il dispose en général d’un <em>REPL</em> (<em>Read-Eval-Print Loop</em>)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Quelques exemples</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>shells pour les OS : Bash, Zsh, tcsh</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>ECMAScript (Javascript) pour les navigateurs web</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Lua embarqué dans une application (<em>VLC Media Player</em>, jeu <em>Battle for Wesnoth</em>)</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_système_de_typage"><a class="anchor" href="#_système_de_typage"></a><a class="link" href="#_système_de_typage">1.1.6. Système de typage</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Un <em>système de typage</em> attribue des types aux éléments du langage</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Attribuer un type à une expression permet de limiter les erreurs de programmation</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>en définissant ce qu’il est possible de faire avec une expression</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>en définissant les règles de compatibilité entre expressions</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>en vérifiant ces contraintes</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_typage_explicite_vs_implicite"><a class="anchor" href="#_typage_explicite_vs_implicite"></a><a class="link" href="#_typage_explicite_vs_implicite">1.1.7. Typage explicite vs. implicite</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Le typage est <em>explicite</em> si les annotations de type sont visibles dans le code source</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">En C, chaque déclaration de variable précise son type</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-C hljs" data-lang="C">int nombre = 1;
double pi = 3.141592;</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Le typage est <em>implicite</em> si les types ne sont pas précisés dans le code source</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">En PHP, la première affectation crée la variable</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-php hljs" data-lang="php">$nombre = 1;
$pi = 3.141592;</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Des langages à typage explicite peuvent faire appel à l'<em>inférence de types</em> dans certaines situations</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>permet la déduction automatique des types</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_typage_statique_vs_dynamique"><a class="anchor" href="#_typage_statique_vs_dynamique"></a><a class="link" href="#_typage_statique_vs_dynamique">1.1.8. Typage statique vs. dynamique</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Le typage est <em>statique</em> si l’information de type est associée à l’identificateur</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>⇒ la vérification des types peut être réalisée lors de la compilation</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>Le typage est <em>dynamique</em> si l’information de type est portée par l’objet lui-même</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>⇒ la vérification se fait durant l’exécution</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_typage_statique"><a class="anchor" href="#_typage_statique"></a><a class="link" href="#_typage_statique">1.1.9. Typage statique</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Améliore la fiabilité du programme (plus de vérifications plus précoces)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Meilleur support des outils (IDE)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Meilleures performances</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">En C, les erreurs de type sont identifiées par le compilateur</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-C hljs" data-lang="C">double a = "une chaine";
// error: incompatible types when initializing type ‘double’ using type ‘char *’</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_typage_dynamique"><a class="anchor" href="#_typage_dynamique"></a><a class="link" href="#_typage_dynamique">1.1.10. Typage dynamique</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Offre plus de souplesse dans l’écriture du code source</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>duck typing</em>, <em>data as code</em>, métaprogrammation</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>Permet le prototypage rapide</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">En PHP, les erreurs de type peuvent passer inaperçues</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-php hljs" data-lang="php">$a = 1;
$a = "une chaine";
echo $a + 2; // affiche 2</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_typage_fort_vs_faible"><a class="anchor" href="#_typage_fort_vs_faible"></a><a class="link" href="#_typage_fort_vs_faible">1.1.11. Typage fort vs. faible</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Le typage est <em>fort</em> si les manipulations entre données de types différents sont limitées et contrôlées</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Le typage est <em>faible</em> si les possibilités de transtypage sont nombreuses et implicites</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Ces notions sont relativement floues</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Le C est à typage fort mais…​</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-C hljs" data-lang="C">int a = "une chaine";
printf("%d\n", a); // 443215...</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_support_des_paradigmes_de_programmation"><a class="anchor" href="#_support_des_paradigmes_de_programmation"></a><a class="link" href="#_support_des_paradigmes_de_programmation">1.1.12. Support des paradigmes de programmation</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Un <strong>paradigme de programmation</strong> représente la façon d’aborder un problème et d’en concevoir la solution.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Quelques paradigmes</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Programmation impérative</p>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Programmation structurée</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Programmation modulaire</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Programmation par abstraction de données</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Programmation objet</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>Programmation fonctionnelle</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Programmation logique</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>Un langage <strong>supporte un paradigme</strong> quand il fournit les fonctionnalités pour utiliser ce style (de façon simple, sécurisée et efficace)</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_exemple_programmation_logique_avec_prolog"><a class="anchor" href="#_exemple_programmation_logique_avec_prolog"></a><a class="link" href="#_exemple_programmation_logique_avec_prolog">1.1.13. Exemple - Programmation logique avec Prolog</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Prolog permet de définir et d’interroger une <em>base de faits</em></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Prolog est un langage déclaratif</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Un <em>fait</em> est une assertion simple</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- Idéfix est un chien
chien(idefix).</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Une <em>règle</em> décrit une inférence à partir des faits</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- Les chiens aiment les arbres
aimeLesArbres(X):- chien(X).</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Une <em>requête</em> est une question sur la <em>base de connaissance</em></p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- Idéfix aime-t'il les arbres ?
?- aimeLesArbres(idefix)</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_requête"><a class="anchor" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_requête"></a><a class="link" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_requête">1.1.14. Solveur de Sudoku \$4 xx 4\$ en Prolog - Requête</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- requête
| ?- sudoku([_, _, 2, 3,
_, _, _, _,
_, _, _, _,
3, 4, _, _],
Solution).</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_1_3"><a class="anchor" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_1_3"></a><a class="link" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_1_3">1.1.15. Solveur de Sudoku \$4 xx 4\$ en Prolog - Résolution 1/3</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- la solution doit être unifiée avec le problème
- le problème comporte 16 chiffres
- chaque chiffre est compris entre 1 et 4 (fd_domain)
sudoku(Puzzle, Solution) :-
Solution = Puzzle,
Puzzle = [A1, A2, A3, A4,
B1, B2, B3, B4,
C1, C2, C3, C4,
D1, D2, D3, D4],
fd_domain(Puzzle, 1, 4),</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_2_3"><a class="anchor" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_2_3"></a><a class="link" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_2_3">1.1.16. Solveur de Sudoku \$4 xx 4\$ en Prolog - Résolution 2/3</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- les blocs (lignes, colonnes et carrés) sont définis
Row1 = [A1, A2, A3, A4],
Row2 = [B1, B2, B3, B4],
Row3 = [C1, C2, C3, C4],
Row4 = [D1, D2, D3, D4],
Col1 = [A1, B1, C1, D1],
Col2 = [A2, B2, C2, D2],
Col3 = [A3, B3, C3, D3],
Col4 = [A4, B4, C4, D4],
Square1 = [A1, A2, B1, B2],
Square2 = [A3, A4, B3, B4],
Square3 = [C1, C2, D1, D2],
Square4 = [C3, C4, D3, D4],</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_3_3"><a class="anchor" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_3_3"></a><a class="link" href="#_solveur_de_sudoku_4_xx_4_en_prolog_résolution_3_3">1.1.17. Solveur de Sudoku \$4 xx 4\$ en Prolog - Résolution 3/3</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlightjs highlight"><code class="language-prolog hljs" data-lang="prolog">- le prédicat valid reçoit une liste de 12 blocs
- la liste vide est valide
- la tête de la liste ne comporte pas de doublons (fd_all_different)
- le reste de la liste doit être valide
valid([]).
valid([Head|Tail]) :-
fd_all_different(Head),
valid(Tail).
- une solution possède des blocs valides
valid([Row1, Row2, Row3, Row4,
Col1, Col2, Col3, Col4,
Square1, Square2, Square3, Square4]).</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_exemple_programmation_fonctionnelle_avec_haskell"><a class="anchor" href="#_exemple_programmation_fonctionnelle_avec_haskell"></a><a class="link" href="#_exemple_programmation_fonctionnelle_avec_haskell">1.1.18. Exemple - Programmation fonctionnelle avec Haskell</a></h4>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Haskell est un langage fonctionnel</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Possède un système de typage statique, fort et principalement implicite (inférence de types)</p>
</li>